This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8821, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

Luminescent Solar Concentrators (LSC’s) are a promising alternative for reducing the cost of solar power. Exploiting the advantages of optical fiber production, we present here a Fiber LSC (FLSC) in which the waveguide is a polymer optical fiber. We present modeling, fabrication and optical characterization of FLSC (conversion efficiency ~ 5.7%) with a hybrid fiber structure for two-stage concentration of incident light. Directional guiding in fiber allows for at least twofold geometrical gain improvement compared to conventional LSC. It also alleviates the size limitation of conventional LSC’s in one direction. Light-weight, flexible solar sheets assembled from such fibers can provide a means for mobile energy needs.

Luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) have the ability to receive light from a wide range of angles, concentrating the captured light onto small photo active areas. This enables greater incorporation of LSCs into building designs as windows, skylights and wall claddings in addition to rooftop installations of current solar panels. Using relatively cheap luminescent dyes and acrylic waveguides to effect light concentration onto lesser photovoltaic (PV) cells, there is potential for this technology to approach grid price parity. We employ a panel design in which the front facing PV cells collect both direct and concentrated light ensuring a gain factor greater than one. This also allows for flexibility in determining the placement and percentage coverage of PV cells during the design process to balance reabsorption losses against the power output and level of light concentration desired. To aid in design optimization, a Monte-Carlo ray tracing program was developed to study the transport of photons and loss mechanisms in LSC panels. The program imports measured absorption/emission spectra and transmission coefficients as simulation parameters with interactions of photons in the panel determined by comparing calculated probabilities with random number generators. LSC panels with multiple dyes or layers can also be simulated. Analysis of the results reveals optimal panel dimensions and PV cell layouts for maximum power output for a given dye concentration, absorbtion/emission spectrum and quantum efficiency.

Luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) are low cost photovoltaic devices, which reduce the amount of necessary semiconductor material per unit area of a photovoltaic solar energy converter by means of concentration. The device is comprised of a thin plastic plate in which luminescent species (fluorophores) have been incorporated.The fluorophores absorb the solar light and radiatively re-emit a part of the energy. Total internal reflection traps most of the emitted light inside the plate and wave-guides it to a narrow side facet with a solar cell attached, where conversion into electricity occurs. The eciency of such devices is as yet rather low, due to several loss mechanisms, of which self-absorption is of high importance. Combined ray-tracing and Monte-Carlosimulations is a widely used tool for efficiency estimations of LSC-devices prior to manufacturing. We have applied this method to a model experiment, in which we analysed the impact of self-absorption onto LSC-efficiency of fluorophores with different absorption/emission-spectral overlap (Stokes-shift): several organic dyes and semiconductor quantum dots (single compound and core/shell of type-II). These results are compared with the ones obtained experimentally demonstrating a good agreement. The validated model is used to investigate systematically the influence of spectral separation and luminescence quantum efficiency on the intensity loss inconsequence of increased self-absorption. The results are used to adopt a quantity called the self-absorption cross-section and establish it as reliable criterion for self-absorption properties of materials that can be obtained from fundamental data and has a more universal scope of application, than the currently used Stokes-shift.

To move beyond the efficiency limits of single-junction solar cells, junctions of different bandgaps must be used to avoid losses from lack of absorption of low energy photons and energy lost as excited carriers thermalize to the semiconductor band edge. Traditional tandem multijunction solar cells are limited, however, by lattice-matching and current-matching constraints. As an alternative we propose a lateral multijunction design in which a compound holographic optic splits the solar spectrum into four frequency bands each incident on a dual-junction, III-V tandem cell with bandgaps matched to the spectral band. The compound splitting element is composed of four stacks of three volume phase holographic diffraction gratings. Each stack of three diffracts three bands and allows a fourth to pass straight through to a cell placed beneath the stack, with each of the three gratings in the stack responsible for diffracting one frequency band. Generalized coupled wave analysis is used to model the holographic splitting. Concentration is achieved using compound parabolic trough concentrators. An iterative design process includes updating the ideal bandgaps of the four dual-junction cells to account for photon misallocation after design of the optic. Simulation predicts a two-terminal efficiency of 36.14% with 380x concentration including realistic losses.

In grating-over-lens spectrum splitting designs, a planar transmission grating is placed at the entrance of a plano-convex lens. Part of the incident solar spectrum is diffracted at 15-30° from normal incidence to the lens. The diffracted spectral range comes to a focus at an off-axis point and the undiffracted spectrum comes to a focus on the optical axis of the lens. Since the diffracted wave is planar and off-axis, the off-axis focal points suffer from aberrations that increase system loss. Field curvature, chromatic and spherical aberrations are compensated using defocusing and a curved focal plane (approximated with each photovoltaic receiver). Coma is corrected by modifying the off-axis wavefront used in constructing the hologram. In this paper, we analyze the use of non-planar transmission gratings recorded using a conjugate object beam to modify the off-axis wavefront. Diverging sources are used as conjugate object and reference beams. The spherical waves are incident at the lens and the grating is recorded at the entrance aperture of the solar concentrator. The on-axis source is adjusted to produce an on-axis planar wavefront at the hologram plane. The off-axis source is approximated to a diffraction limited spot producing a non-planar off-axis wavefront on the hologram plane. Illumination with a planar AM1.5 spectrum reproduces an off-axis diffraction-limited spot on the focal plane. This paper presents ray trace and coupled wave theory simulations used to quantify the reduction in losses achieved with aberration correction.

Using diverse bandgap photovoltaic cells can improve solar conversion efficiency, but these systems also require efficient dispersive optics to direct portions of the solar spectrum onto the appropriate optimized cells. We use an extended coupled-mode model to show how multiplexed volume gratings interact with one another reducing efficiency in the diffraction orders of interest as well as increasing stray light under certain conditions. We conducted experiments with multiplexed gratings in dichromated gelatin to verify our theory. This technique reveals effects that cannot be seen through superposition of single grating models, which suggests that multiplexed gratings must be treated simultaneously when designing such a system.

The combination of optical concentration, spatial spectral splitting and the use of multiple cells of suitable bandgap, could provide a path for high PV conversion efficiency without requiring the use of monolithically integrated multi junction solar cells. We propose a dispersive point focus single element concentrator and spectral splitting optics coupled with multiple cells employing Cu(InxGa1-x)Se2 cells for the mid wavelengths region. The optical element is designed, taking advantage of the dispersion characteristics of the employed material, to concentrate and provide spatial spectral splitting. The component can be realized injection molding and be mass produced at low cost.

While monolithic multijunction solar cell approaches have been quite successful, current and lattice matching requirements limit the maximum possible achievable efficiencies. Spectrum splitting, where light is optically distributed among subcells with differing bandgaps, avoids these constraints and offers a route to achieving higher efficiencies (<50%). We investigate a spectrum splitting approach where concentrated sunlight is trapped in a textured dielectric slab and then selectively coupled into underlying solar cells of different bandgaps through omnidirectional filters. We develop a multipass optical model to find regimes of high optical efficiency based on parameters such as slab refractive index, number of subcells, and angle restriction of light escape from the slab. Based on these results and filter design considerations, we describe a specific design featuring a textured slab of SiO2 coated with angle restricting incoupling elements based on compound parabolic concentrators and three underlying multijunction junction solar cells, for a total of eight junctions with bandgaps ranging from 2.2eV to 0.7. Using the multipass model in conjunction with modified detailed balance calculations, we find module efficiencies exceeding 50% are possible with an acceptance angle restricted to 20° or less and concentrations of a few hundred suns with ideal omnidirectional filters. Finally as proof of concept, we design a full set of omnidirectional filters for this design. Based on alternating layers of TiO₂ and SiO₂, we achieve angle averaged reflectivity greater than 90% within the reflection band and angle averaged transmission of approximately 90% within the transmission band for the long pass filter, for nearly 48% receiver efficiency.

There is a need for a high efficiency low cost solar energy conversion system. Currently, most concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems concentrate the solar spectrum onto triple junction cells to strive for high conversion efficiencies and low cost. Other approaches to high efficiency use spectrum splitting. Triple junction systems are limited in efficiency and spectrum splitting systems are usually too costly for mass production. The objective is to design a spectrum splitting solar concentrator, using reverse ray tracing methods, to overcome the efficiency and cost limitations of current systems by using a single low cost optical device to concentrate and split the solar spectrum onto a large number of target photovoltaic (PV) cells. Dispersive properties of standard optical materials, such as glass or plastic, are utilized to achieve the desired spectral separation. Reverse ray tracing is used to simultaneously optimize the shape of the top and bottom interfaces of the solar concentrator to achieve the desired split spectrum at the target PV cells. Additional strategies to increase system efficiency and minimize optical losses, including draft surface shading and corner rounding losses, are explored. A CPV module, including the spectrum splitting solar concentrator and five PV cells of different bandgaps, is proposed. This spectrum splitting CPV system has a calculated aggregate cell conversion efficiency that exceeds 45%, has the potential to be mass produced, and meets the need for a high efficiency low cost solar energy conversion system.

One pathway to achieving ultra-high solar efficiencies (<50%) is employing a spectrum splitting optical element with at least 6 subcells and significant concentration (100-500 suns). We propose a design to meet these criteria, employing specular reflection to split and divide the light onto appropriate subcells. The polyhedral specular reflector incorporates a high index parallelepiped with seven subcells. The subcells are placed around the parallelepiped such that light entering at normal incidence encounters the subcells in order from highest to lowest bandgap, with the ray path reflecting at a 90° angle until the light is fully absorbed. Previous studies of the design have shown that concentration and filters are necessary to achieve high efficiencies and thus the current iteration of the design employs shortpass filters and two stages of concentration. Ray tracing of the current iteration shows exceeding 50% efficiency is possible for current subcell qualities with perfect shortpass filters while 50% module efficiencies are only possible for very high quality (<6% ERE) subcells with commercially available shortpass filters. However, even with commercially available filters and achievable subcell quality, ray tracing results show very high (<43%) module efficiency.

The paper reports the design and realization of a solar internal lighting system equipped with a solar tracking system. Full visible spectrum solar light has been focussed using a solar concentrator and guided inside the building through optical fiber whose other end is coupled to a fiber texture for lighting in building during day hours. The developed system is found to be an efficient system for interior lighting during daytime.

From 2009 through early 2012, Amonix installed nearly 40 MW AC of its flagship 7700 Solar Power Generator product in locations all across the southwestern USA. Since completion of these projects, Amonix has been adapting lessons learned from the 7700 build-out and new CPV technologies into the company’s 8700 Solar Power Generator, to be released in late 2014. The paper will focus on the features of the 8700 product, including higher performance and lower cost, and how the 8700 plans to keep CPV competitive in the global solar marketplace.

We propose a stationary module in which a mirror array is inserted between a lens and a solar cell. Each mirror is set up so that the light passing the principal point of the lens reaches a fixed point on an exit plane and that the length of its optical path is equal to the focal length of the lens. The light passing the other points in the lens reaches other mirrors. If the reflected light mostly reached the area near the fixed point, a slightly larger solar cell would harvest it. We have carried out ray tracing simulations to see how the optical power is distributed on an exit plane of such a module. The model consists of a hollow rectangular parallelepiped containing a mirror array, a plano-convex lens attached to the top plane of the parallelepiped, and a detector attached to one of the side planes. A light source generates parallel beams with various directions defined by the declination angle and the hour angle. Although the irradiance distribution at the exit plane depends on these angles, the basic concept of confining the optical power inside a certain area is demonstrated. Further studies on its design would improve its light utilization. For example, the rays with large incident angles suffer from total internal reflection at the bottom of the lens. Filling the hollow parallelepiped by a material with a matching refraction index solves this problem.

Non-uniform irradiance patterns created by Concentrated Photovoltaics (CPV) concentrators over Multi-Junction Cells (MJC) can originate significant power losses, especially when there are different spectral irradiance distributions over the different MJC junctions. This fact has an increased importance considering the recent advances in 4 and 5 junction cells. The spectral irradiance distributions are especially affected with thermal effects on Silicone-on-Glass (SoG) CPV systems. This work presents a new CPV optical design, the 9-fold Fresnel Köhler concentrator, prepared to overcome these effects at high concentrations while maintaining a large acceptance angle, paving the way for a future generation of high efficiency CPV systems of 4 and 5 junction cells.

The outdoor measurements of a single-cell concentrator PV module reaching a regressed 35.6% efficiency and a maximum peak efficiency of 36.0% (both corrected @T_cell=25ºC) are presented. This is the result of the joint effort by LPI and Solar Junction to demonstrate the potential of combining their respective state-of-the-art concentrator optics and solar cells. The LPI concentrator used is an FK, which is an advanced nonimaging concentrator using 4-channel Köhler homogenization, with a primary Fresnel lens and a refractive secondary made of glass. Solar Junction’s cell is a triplejunction solar cell with the A-SLAM_TM architecture using dilute-nitrides.

Solar concentrators are often used in conjunction with III-V multi-junction solar cells for cost reduction and efficiency improvement purposes. High flux concentration ratio, high optical efficiency and high manufacture tolerance are the key features required for a successful solar concentrator design. This paper describes a novel solar concentrator that combines the concepts, and thus the advantages, of both the refractive type ad reflective type. The proposed concentrator design adopts the Etendue-cascading concept that allows the light beams from all the concentric annular entrance pupils to be collected and transferred to the solar cell with minimal loss. This concept enables the system to perform near its Etendue-Limit and have a high concentration ratio simultaneously. Thereby reducing the costs of solar cells and therefor achieves a better the per watts cost. The concentrator demonstrated has a thing aspect ratio of 0.19 with a zero back focal distance. The numerical aperture at the solar cell immersed inside the dielectric concentrator is as high as 1.33 achieving a unprecedented high optical concentration ratio design.

A comparative study is performed to quantify the difference in efficiency and spectral sensitivity between a tandem junction and its spectrum splitting parallel junction counterpart. Direct normal solar spectra in a representative sunny site, Tucson, Arizona are calculated using the SPCTRAL2 model at 15-minute intervals throughout a year with real-time meteorological data input. The corresponding efficiencies of the two junctions under 500X concentration at cell temperatures deduced from thermal modeling with real-time ambient temperatures are computed. Both junction structures comprise the same materials, InGaP, GaAs and Ge, and are each optimized to the AM1.5D standard spectrum and cell temperature of 25 C, under which the parallel junction achieves a 1.0% absolute (and 2.5% relative) higher efficiency than the tandem junction. The two junctions are compared for their hourly, daily, and yearly average efficiencies. It is found that the yearly average efficiency of the parallel junction is 2.65% absolute (and 7.31% relative) higher than that of the tandem junction.

Increasing the system performance, reducing costs, and demonstrating long term reliability are currently the three most important topics for CPV technologists to address. High volumes are necessary, but insufficient for reducing costs through economies of scale. What is required is a highly engineered solution to reduce the bill-of-materials cost while also increasing performance thus reducing the cost/performance ratio. The use of very small high efficiency multi-junction solar cells enabled by massively parallel processing technology provides a pathway toward meeting the challenges of the CPV industry during the 2nd half of this decade.