Change in resistance of interconnect traces on flexible substrates is dependent on material properties and mechanical
stress imposed by tensile strain. Dedicated test structures and a mechanical flexing / data collection system were
designed and fabricated to collect time to failure data based on cyclic loading to different radii of curvature. We propose
a life-stress model based on an inverse power law relationship defining the characteristic life of a Weibull life
distribution.
The authors present the design and calculated performance of a low threshold
selectively oxidized Surface Emitting Laser (SEL) for operation at a wavelength of up 3.0
μm. The device is based on III-V quaternary semiconductor alloys and is grown by the
Molecular Beam Epitaxy technique. The theoretical investigation of the optical properties of
the compound semiconductor alloys allows for the selection of the optimum materials for
highly reflective Bragg mirrors. The simulation of the designed SEL performance has been
carried out by evaluation of the important laser characteristics such as threshold gain,
threshold current density and external quantum efficiency. We present a design which
integrates a thermoelectric controller and multi-SELs to provide continuous tunability.
The design, fabrication and performance of low threshold selectively oxidized infrared vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) for operation at 0.89μm and 1.55μm wavelengths using optimized graded Bragg mirrors, is reported. The devices are based on III-V ternary (AlGaAs/GaAs) and quaternary (AlInGaAs/GaInAsP/InP) graded semiconductor alloys and quantum wells and are grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy. The VCSEL arrays are processed using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching with BCl3 gas mixtures to achieve vertical walls and small geometries, and the fabrication of the devices proceeds by using conventional Ohmic contacts (Ti-Pt-Au and Ni-Au-Ge-Ni) and indium tin oxide (ITO) transparent contacts. The theoretical investigation of the optical properties of the quaternary compound semiconductor alloys allows us to select the optimum materials for highly reflective Bragg mirrors with less periods. The simulation of the designed VCSEL performance has been carried out by evaluation of the important laser characteristics such as threshold gain, threshold current density and external quantum efficiency.
MEMs are basically sensors and actuators in a harsh environment or strains exceeding 102 and strain rates approaching shock deformation conditions. The reliability concerns are electronic, optical and micro-mechanical. Surface morphology of sensors and actuators becomes critical and the investigation presents results on diamond like films developed for resolving tribology related problems in MEMs rotating surfaces. Other MEMs results on surface passivation are reviewed.
A selectively oxidized Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL) has been designed and fabricated for operation at a wavelength of l.546im. The lattice matched device structure was grown on an InP substrate using 111-V quaternary semiconductor alloys for Bragg mirrors and GaInAsP-based unstrained Multi-Quantum Wells (MQW) for the active layer. The mirror reflectivities are 97% for the top Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) consisting of 16 pairs of AlGaInAs/InP layers, and 99.9% for the bottom DBR consisting of22 pairs. A threshold current as low as 2.2mA has been achieved. The threshold voltage was typically lower than 2.0 V and the power output exceeded 1mW. The laser spectrum from a 7jtm confmed diode shows a single mode ofoperation at 1.54 m. The single fundamental mode was present at all current levels. The influence ofthe intentional and growth-related compositional grading at the heterointerfaces as well as random and fixed thickness variations of layer thickness on the mirror reflectivity and laser characteristics has been investigated, and key sensitivities to laser performance have been determined through computational simulations. It is shown that the degree of surface roughness and random thickness variation have the strongest impact on the device performance.
Quaternary semiconductor alloy material systems for applications as highly efficient Distributed Bragg Reflectors were investigated for two operating wavelengths of 1.3 and 1.55 micrometer. Based on the calculations of the material's energy bandgaps and indices of refraction for the entire composition range and for the corresponding incident wavelength, four quaternary alloys have been selected from which the refractive index difference between two adjacent layers of 0.65 has been obtained. All quaternary alloys were lattice matched to InP substrate. The reflectivity calculations show that for the DBR with a large index of refraction contrast, 16 pairs of layers would result in a reflectivity of 99%. The resulting monolithic VCSEL structure would consist of fewer DBR layers, interface roughness would be reduced, and, therefore, reliability of the device would be improved.
Planar monolithically integrated GaAs-on-silicon photoreceivers consisting of a metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodiode and GaAs metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor have been fabricated. The performance of GaAs on Si MSM photodetectors has been characterized and the dark current was measured and compared to the conventional p-i-n photodiodes. The investigated GaAs on Si photoreceivers were subjected to thermal accelerated stress testing up to 200 degree(s)C and duration of 1000 hours, in order to study their thermal stability. A failure mode has been determined to consist of an increase of dark current and a decrease of photocurrent as a function of aging time. The degradation mechanism is shown to be the interdiffusion in the Au/GaAs interfaces and the degradation of the photosensitive surfaces after temperature stress testing.
A packaging technology for global (N4) free space optical interconnects has been developed and implemented by means of hybrid integration using solder engineering. Solder arrays, defined by photolithography and electrodeposition, are used to physically attach, optically align and electrically connect the microoptical components. A processing sequence has been fully developed for the fabrication of the emitter sub-assembly consist of 8 X 8 and 16 X 16 arrays of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers and diffractive optical interconnect elements. The first level of integration consisting of the metal signal lines, ground plane and solder arrays has been completed with excellent uniformity and yield of the deposited solder.
Thermal simulation was carried out by finite element analysis. Both 2D and 3D modeling of the technology demonstrators, usually based on quarter models facilitated by the VCSEL modules symmetries, were carried out. The models were parameterized so that the effects of material properties, dimension VCSEL power dissipation could be easily simulated. Based on these models, detailed performance figures were projected for the VCSEL modules. Similarly the effects of non-uniform power dissipation were simulated. Using the parameterized models, the simulations can be used to rapidly assess the effects of changes in the VCSEL modules design and structure and to select optimum configuration for a given application. The heat conduction from the VCSEL to a heat sink is modeled through different package elements. They models are also used to study the different in thermal behavior between a wire-bonded and a flip-chip VCSEL, which consisted of an 8 X 8 array. The dimension of the VCSEL was varied from 8 micrometers to 20 micrometers and the characteristics of (Delta) T vs. VCSEL's power dissipation are developed for all the different models. The analysis indicated that the VCSEL active junction temperature is higher than the heat sink temperature. Optimized package design can be a critical element in enhancing reliability. Trade-off issues resulting form conflicting performance requirements are also discussed. The FEM analysis was also used to simulate the VCSEL configuration in order to understand the thermo-mechanical response of the VCSEL and the flip-chip interconnect during the bond processing.
A thin colorless radiochromic diacetylene monomer sensor coated on a transparent polyester base undergoes solid-state polymerization via free radical mechanisms when irradiated with ultraviolet 266 nm wavelength, x- and gamma rays, and high-energy electron beam irradiation. The radiation-induced polymerization reaction leads to the formation of 1, 4-trans additions as polyconjugations along the ladder-like polymer chains.As a result, the colorless, transparent films responds to ultraviolet and to ionizing radiation by turning deep-blue, with an absorption spectrum that exhibits two distinct absorptions. Pulse radiolysis and flash photolysis techniques were used to measure the kinetics of the polymerization propagation reactions. The pulsed-electron- induced propagation of polymerization has an observed first- order rate constant of the order of 103 s-1, followed by much slower blue-shift of the primary absorption band. The activation energy of the polymerization was found to be approximately equals 50 kJ mol-1. The fast kinetics of the UV-induced polymerization is faster by about one order of magnitude. The film can be utilized for optoelectronics, remote sensing, and radiation dosimetry.
A reliability prediction model for optical interconnects has been developed and applied to two commercial optical interconnect systems. The reliability prediction model is based on the concept of a reliability figure of merit (RELFOM). The RELFOM methodology considers the entire system in a series structure and consists of the RELFOM of all of the individual components of the interconnect system, where each component of the RELFOM is further defined according to performance parameters, such as propagation delay, power dissipation and cross talk noise. The RELFOM model can be used effectively for technology comparisons and reliability prediction without utilizing extensive reliability testing.
A novel form of thin-coated transparent polymer film undergoes a radiation-initiated solid-state polymerization reaction when irradiated with deep ultraviolet and x and gamma rays. It forms a permanent deep-blue high-resolution image, without the need for chemical, optical, or thermal processing. The increase in the optical density with absorbed dose, irradiance or photon fluence is a linear function with relatively high contrast and without appreciable reciprocity failure and has the same response in vacuum and in air. The sensor coating thickness on a polyester base is approximately 6 micrometer. It forms the radiation-induced image that can resolve 600 line pairs per millimeter. The ultraviolet sensitivity at 266 nm wavelength is such that the optical density produced by an irradiance of 30 mJ/cm2 is approximately 1.00 at the wavelength maximum of the absorption spectrum (670 nm). UV, low-energy x-ray (10 keV) and gamma-ray (660 keV) response characteristics are presented, which demonstrate the ability to evaluate and map radiation image distributions quantitatively. The films are useful to calibrate beam profiles, including the penumbra shapes, because of the wide dynamic range and linear response.
A novel fiber optic sensor responds with a supra-linear relationship between optical density readout and absorbed dose, when irradiated with high doses of x and gamma radiation (10-2 to 104 Gy). The radiation sensor medium is a radiochromic gel core filling a flexible fluorinated polyethylene plastic tubing that is fitted with either Suprasil quartz plugs as radiation-insensitive end windows or Pyrex glass beads that serve as lenses. Readings are made with a specially designed spectrophotometer enabling efficient propagation of interrogating light with a narrow band-pass filter at the optical wavelength of the radiation-induced color absorption band maximum (600 nm). The absorption at 600 nm is related to the formation of a highly conjugated carbocationic dye. The formation of the conjugation proceeds through very fast kinetics (approximately 1 ns) followed by relatively slower kinetics (2 ms). The shortest selective fiber optic sensor length is 5 cm and outer diameter is 0.27 cm, allowing selective placement of the sensor portion into remote irradiated components. Fiber optic sensor lengths up to 150 cm allow dose measurements as low as 10 -2 Gy. Extraction of radiation dosimetry data to the external reader is carried out either in real-time or on demand following irradiation, and is made possible by connecting the sensor length to ancillary fiber optic access loop.
A free space chip-to-chip optical interconnection system using hybrid architecture is presented here. The Gaussian beam propagation model and the ray transform matrices are utilized to design the optical interconnect link. The optical performance of the hybrid optical receiver is computed using a scalar diffraction theory and the results compared with ray transform matrices. Also, the diffraction loss and the optical crosstalk are computed as a function of microlens diameter for various microlens pitch.
A compact free space optical system that consists of novel hybrid source and receiver arrays for chip-to-chip and board-to-board optical communication is described. The hybrid source and receiver structures consist of the electronic chip, optoelectronic array and microlens attached and aligned using flip-chip bonding. The architecture is a three layered structure. Hemispherical shaped refractive microlens made of glass collimate the light from the microlasers and focus onto the photodiodes. Analysis was carried out using Gaussian beam propagation models and paraxial ray approximation matrices to analyze the hybrid optoelectronic arrays. The chip-to-chip distance was computed as a function of the microlaser beam waist. Furthermore, Huygen-Fresnel scalar diffraction was utilized to compute the optical crosstalk. Finally, the reliability of the system was evaluated under temperature cycling and flip-chip bonding process variations, which showed that such a system is potentially robust and non-sensitive to process variations.
The selective area MBE deposition of InGaAs in InP substrates is reported. Successful selective growth of InGaAs in pre-ion etched windows of InP has been achieved utilizing a SILOX mask and lift-off techniques of polycrystalline InGaAs field layers. The optical quality of these epitaxial InGaAs windows was comparable to material deposited on non-patterned InP. An optimized pre-growth heat treatment of InP was very crucial in order to achieve the smooth InGaAs surface morphologies and excellent optical properties. Finally, no significant irregularities were observed at the InGaAs window edges, the alloy composition appeared uniform in the entire window areas and the incorporation of impurities from the SILOX was minimized.
(100)CdZnTe epilayers are grown by hot wall beam epitaxy (HWBE) on (100) GaAs. The CdZnTe
epilayers are used as substrates for the growth of Hg1_CdTe (x = 0.27 - 0.32) layers by closed
space vapor phase epitaxy. The Hg1CdTe layers have an x-ray rocking curve width of 59 10
arc sec measured across a 1 inch wafer. The layers are p-type with a hole concentration of 2 -
4.1016crri3 and a mobility of 250 - 350cm2/Vs at 77 K. Photoconductivity decay measurements
give the lifetime of excess carriers which is governed by recombination via Shockley-Read centres
at T < 250 K. Linear arrays of planar, photovoltaic detectors are fabricated by implantation of B
ions. The elements size is 50 50,arn2, the space between the elements is 50prn. The R0A product,
the responsivity and the cut-off wavelength of the p-n junction are measured at 192 K. The
variation of the responsivity across a 16 element array is less than 4 %, the cut-off wavelength
varies between 4.77,um and 4.83μm.
As a result of the ever decreasing cost and increasing speed performance and integration level of Silicon VLSI the large scale use of high-speed GaAs digital IC''s will only occur if a dramatic decrease in cost occurs coupled with the attainment of a radiation hard-high performance technology. The larger scale fabrication of GaAs circuits allowed by the use of Si and SIMOX substrates will permit the attainment of such a low cost high reliability technology. In addition the present evolution of electronic circuits towards monolithic integration makes it very desirable to combine functions which are not attainable with devices stemming from only one material. The present paperreviews the recent material and device developments for GaAs on silicon and also extends the discussion to GaAs on SIMOX.
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