A naturally cracked aircraft stabilizer former has been examined. By using surface shear horizontal diagnostic acoustic
waves and a multi-point detection approach, a fretting crack, 0.2-inch long, 0.03-inch deep and at 0.06-inch to a rivet
hole has been clearly identified. The proposed approach provides a simple way to interpret sensor output without
imposing demanding transducer performance requirements.
A damage detection capability based on a flexible ultrasonic transducer (FUT) array bonded onto a planar and a curved
surface is presented. The FUT array was fabricated on a 75 μm titanium substrate using sol-gel spray technique. Room
temperature curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent and ultrasonic couplant between the transducer and the test
article. The bonding agent was successfully tested for aircraft environmental temperatures between -80 °C and 100 °C.
For a planar test article, selected FUT arrays were able to detect fasteners damage within a planar distance of 176 mm,
when used in the pulse-echo mode. Such results illustrate the effectiveness of the developed FUT transducer as compared
to commercial 10MHz ultrasonic transducer (UT). These FUT arrays were further demonstrated on a curved test article.
Pulse-echo measurements confirmed the reflected echoes from the specimen. Such measurement was not possible with
commercial UTs due to the curved nature of the test article and its accessibility, thus demonstrating the suitability and
superiority of the developed flexible ultrasonic transducer capability.
KEYWORDS: Ultrasonics, Aluminum, Composites, Structural health monitoring, Nondestructive evaluation, Electrodes, Transducers, Wave plates, Temperature metrology, Signal to noise ratio
Flexible ultrasonic transducers (FUTs) which have the on-site installation capability are presented for the non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) and structural health monitoring (SHM) purposes. These FUTs consist of 75 μm thick titanium membrane, thick (> 70 μm) thick piezoelectric lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) composite (PZT-c) films and thin (< 5 μm) thick top electrodes. The PZT-c films are made by a sol-gel spray technique. Such FUT has been glued onto a steel pipe of 101 mm in diameter and 4.5 mm in wall thickness and operated up to 200°C. The glue served as high temperature
ultrasonic couplant between the FUT and the external surface of the pipe. The estimated pipe thickness measurement accuracy at 200°C is 34 μm. FUTs also were glued onto the end edge of 2 mm thick aluminum (Al) plates to generate
and receive predominantly symmetrical and shear-horizontal (SH) plate acoustic waves (PAWs) to detect simulated line defects at temperature up to 100°C. FUTs glued onto a graphite/epoxy (Gr/Ep) composite are also used for the detection of artificial disbonds. An induction type non-contact method for the evaluation of Al plates and Gr/Ep composites using FUTs is also demonstrated.
Two types of ultrasonic sensors are presented for structural health monitoring (SHM) and non-destructive testing (NDT)
of graphite/epoxy (Gr/Ep) composites of thickness ranging from 1mm to 27.9mm. These piezoelectric film based sensors
are fabricated using a sol-gel spray technique. The center operation frequency of these sensors ranged from 1.3MHz to
10.5MHz. For the first sensor type, piezoelectric films of thickness greater than 60μm were deposited directly onto
planar and curved Gr/Ep composites surfaces as integrated sensors. Ultrasonic signals propagating in a distance of more
than 300mm have been obtained. Anisotropy of 0° and 90° cross ply Gr/Ep composite was measured. For the second
sensor type, piezoelectric films were coated onto a 50µm thick polyimide membrane as flexible sensors that could be
attached to a host composite structure with planar or curved surfaces. The flexibility of such FUTs is achieved due to the
thin polymide, porous PZT/PZT ceramics and electrodes. An induction type non-contact method for the interrogation of
the Gr/Ep composites using integrated sensors is also presented. Such non-contact technique may be desired for NDT of
rotating composite components.
Miniature and light weight thick piezoelectric films (>40μm) integrated ultrasonic transducers (IUTs) for bulk
longitudinal (L) and shear (S) and plate acoustic waves (PAW) propagation are presented. The unique and distinct
advantages of these IUTs are that they can be fabricated, using sol-gel based technique, directly onto sample with
complex structures including curved surfaces and require no couplant for operation. Using novel mode conversion
methods, the L wave generated by IUTs can be converted to S, symmetric, anti-symmetric and shear-horizontal (SH)
PAW. The experimental results agreed well with those obtained by a finite difference based method which solves the 3D
visco-elastic wave equations. These IUTs can operate at temperatures at least up to 150°C, at center frequencies ranging
from 1 to 20 MHz, and provide damage detection range of tens of centimeters in metallic structures. An inductive
coupled technique is used to achieve non-contact measurements with these IUTs.
Piezoelectric films sprayed onto metal substrates together with interdigital transducer electrodes form the integrated
Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (RAW) transducers to excite and detect RAW. Using integrated longitudinal (L) wave
ultrasonic transducers (UTs) and mode conversion from L waves to shear waves symmetrical, anti-symmetrical and
shear horizontal types of guided plate acoustic waves have been generated and received in aluminum alloy plates. These
transducers can be operated in pulse-echo mode for in-situ non-destructive testing (NDT) and/or health monitoring
purposes in a distance of hundreds of mini-meters at 150°C. Examples of using such waves for NDT of defects are also
demonstrated.
Flexible ultrasonic array transducers which can be attached to the desired structures or materials for nondestructive
testing and structural health monitoring applications at room and elevated temperatures are developed. These flexible
ultrasonic transducers (UTs) arrays consist of a thin polyimide membrane with a bottom electrode or stainless steel foil,
a piezoelectric lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) composite film and top electrodes. The flexibility is realized owing to the
porosity of piezoelectric film and the thinness of substrate and electrodes. Top and bottom electrode materials are silver
paste, silver paint or electroless plated nickel alloys. The UT array is configured by the several top electrodes. The
flexible UT has been successfully tested at 150°C and also immersed into water as immersion ultrasonic probe operated
in the pulse-echo mode with good signal to noise ratio.
This paper describes the modeling, fabrication and characterization of a Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer plate with embedded fiber optic strain sensors and surface mounted piezoelectric actuators. The purpose of this study was to design a test article which could actively correct the induced thermal distortions of a composite using surface mounted piezoelectric actuators. The composite plate was modeled using finite element analysis to determine the optimum lay-up and actuator positions for the final composite design. A 30.5 cm composite plate was then constructed with embedded fiber optic sensors, and piezoelectric actuators were surface-mounted to the plate. Finally,k the shape of the plate was characterized by measuring the distortion produced by the piezoelectric actuators.
On-line ultrasonic monitoring of polymer co-extrusion and gas-assisted injection molding are presented. During the co- extrusion of high density polyethylene and Santoprene ultrasonic sensors consisting of piezoelectric transducers and clad ultrasonic buffer rods are used to detect the interface between these two polymers and the stability of the extrusion. The same ultrasonic sensor also measures the surface temperature of the extruded polymer. The results indicate that temperature measurements using ultrasound have a faster response time than those obtained by conventional thermocouple. In gas-assisted injection molding the polymer and gas flow front positions are monitored simultaneously. This information may be used to control the plunger movement.
On-line ultrasonic monitoring of polymer injection molding and aluminum die casting are presented. The flow front of molten polymer and aluminum inside the mold has been proved by a multiple-channel acquisition system with a time resolution up to 1 ms. This information may be used to control the plunger movement. The gap development, due to the shrinkage of the part in the mold, and the part solidification are also monitored for the understanding of the cooling process. As expected, it is observed that thicker sections take longer times to solidify. For injection molding, the relation between the gap formation time and packing pressure has been investigated. Since the temperature of molten aluminum is around 700 degrees C, ultrasonic waveguides are inserted into the die for the monitoring.
In North America, most of the water mains pipes have been fabricated with either cast or ductile iron. It is well known that unprotected iron water mains are prone to corrosion resulting sometimes in serious metal loss and even major water leaks. At present time, water utilities have thus to replace parts of their water distribution pipes ont he basis of their average age, the number of breaks per kilometer per year, the hydraulic efficiency and water quality. In this paper, an ultrasonic technique which will enable the in-situ measurement of the pipe wall thickness is presented as an alternative to these inaccurate criteria. Such a technique can be used to map the defects along a water main and to evaluate their severity even if a mortar lining has been used to avoid the formation of tubercles. This technique uses water as the ultrasonic couplant and will not notably disturb the flow. The novelty of the approach relies on the use of a specialized model for ultrasonic propagation in multilayers coupled with a variable gain amplifier which increases significantly the dynamic range of the ultrasonic measurement systems. This system has been successfully used to produce images of corroded or graphitized areas in cast iron pipes of 6 inches nd 8 inches in diameter. The ultrasonic images agree well with the corresponding optical images. Thickness measurements have been also performed on water mains specimens around the defects found. The results indicate that the remaining iron thickness in the corroded regions can be estimated, in most cases, after proper signal processing.
Quasi-distributed optical fiber sensors using multiple frequency shifters (FSs) in two-mode elliptical core fiber (TMECF) are presented. Sensing measurand is the phase shift between the two propagating modes in the fiber. In the present experimental configuration, four FSs provide three independent sensing regions along a single TMECF. We construct one sensor in each region to measure localized strain and/or bending simultaneously. Cross talk among the sensors is theoretical and experimentally evaluated. Measurements were carried out using a computer system that allows a real time data acquisition and display.
The sensing mechanism of an optical fiber accelerometer based on the interaction between the frequency shifted two modes in a two-mode fiber with an off-center core is presented. When the fiber is bent, by the action of an acceleration in a specific direction, due to the asymmetry induced by the off-center core, there exists a preferential net strain. The bending causes a tension or a compression field in the fiber and provides a positive or negative acceleration, respectively. The frequency shift is achieved by an collinear acousto-optic interaction in the two-mode fiber. We show both theoretical analysis and experimental results. Several approaches which can enhance the sensitivity are also provided.
Experimental investigations of stimulated Brillouin scattering in two cascaded single mode optical fibers with different Brillouin shifts are presented. A fiber Brillouin laser consisting of these two cascaded fibers is demonstrated. The output of such a laser exhibits two frequencies corresponding to the Brillouin shifted frequencies of two individual fibers.
A perturbation analysis of stimulated backward Brillouin scattering (SBBS) in single mode optical fibers is presented. The nonlinear interaction between the pump and Stokes waves, optical loss and Bragg diffraction have been all considered. The analytic expressions of the threshold, output Stokes intensity, efficiency for the SBBS fiber amplifiers and lasers are derived. We show that the stronger Bragg diffraction will increase the Brillouin diffraction efficiency and decrease the threshold of SBBS. Effects of acoustic guidance conditions of optical fibers on the above SBBS parameters will be discussed.
Acoustic characterization of doped silica glasses with a Ge02, P205, F, Ti02, A1203 or B203 dopant having different concentrations is presented. The quantitative measurements are performed by a 225 MHz line-focus-beam scanning acoustic microscope. The acoustic velocity variation due to different dopant concentrations for each dopant is given. It has been found that the A1203 dopant increases but the other dopants decrease the acoustic velocity as compared to that of the pure fused silica. The fiber preforms having step and graded refractive index profiles also show step and graded acoustic velocity profiles respectively. We have also found that the acoustic velocity is more sensitive to the dopant concentration as compared with that of optical refractive index.
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