There is an ongoing need in photodynamic therapy (PDT) research to develop highly active photosensitizers (PSs) with improved characteristics combined with optimized treatment protocols to produce effective treatment with minimal side effects. While several novel PSs have undergone clinical trials or been approved in recent years, there remain few available instrumentation options for high-throughput screens (HTS) with in vitro PDT. The Modulight ML8500 was developed to address this need, facilitating HTS of potential PSs with its precisely specific control over the light component. The instrument can select from a variety of high-power, monochromatic wavelengths for screening in the context of a tumor-centered approach, whereby the light dose can be tailored to optimize for physiological conditions or limitations specific to the type of cancer. In the present case, the ML8500 was used here to characterize a series of promising ruthenium-based complexes specifically designed to target melanoma. These PSs could be activated over a broad range of wavelengths, and most importantly including in the near-infrared range, where light penetrates tissue more effectively. In a second study, osmium-based PSs were characterized with the ML8500 in normoxic and hypoxic conditions with variable light parameters (wavelength, light dose, light fluence), showing high activity even in hypoxic conditions. These are specific examples where the ML8500 successfully increased experimental flexibility, reproducibility, and throughput.
Dielectric elastomer actuators rely on the compressive force generated by the electrostatic attraction of a pair of electrodes across a low-modulus polymer.This in turn induces the deformation of the elastomer in the plane normal to the force. It has been shown that the response of such a device is proportional to the permittivity of the core elastomer layer. Here we report our progress
in increasing the permittivity of a polyurethane elastomer through the addition of a conductive filler, graphite. At loadings near the percolation threshold, the actuation stress increases by a factor of over 500, and relative permittivity beyond 4000 is reported.
Electroactive polymer actuators that utilize the Maxwell stress effect have generated considerable interest in recent years for use in applications such as artificial muscles, sensors, and parasitic energy capture. In order to maximize performance, the dielectric layer in Maxwell stress actuators should ideally have a high dielectric constant and high dielectric breakdown strength. In this study, the effect of high dielectric constant fillers on the electrical and mechanical properties of thin elastomeric films was examined. The fillers studied included the inorganic compounds titanium dioxide (TiO2), barium titanate (BaTiO3), and lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO). A high dielectric constant filler based on a polymeric conjugated ligand-metal complex, poly(copper phthalocyanine), was also synthesized and studied. Maxwell stress actuators fabricated with BaTiO3 dispersed in a silicone elastomer matrix were evaluated and compared with unfilled systems. A model was presented which relates filler volume fraction to actuation stress, strain, and elastic energy density at fields below dielectric breakdown. The model and experimental results suggest that for the case of strong filler particle-elastomer matrix interaction, actuation strain decreases with increasing filler content.
The emerging field of materials-based actuation continues to be the focus of considerable research due to its inherent scalability and its promise to drive devices in ways that cannot be realized with conventional mechanical actuator strategies. Current approaches include electrochemically responsive conducting polymers, capacitance-driven carbon nanotubes actuators, pH responsive hydrogels, ionic polymer metal composites, electric field responsive elastomers, and field-driven electrostrictive polymers. However, simple electrochemical processes that lead to phase transformations, particularly from liquid to gas, have been virtually ignored. Although a few specialized applications have been proposed, the nature of the reactions and their implication for design, performance, and widespread applicability have not been addressed. Herein we report an electrolytic phase transformation (EPT) actuator, a device capable of producing strains surpassing 136,000% and stresses beyond 200 MPa. These performance characteristics are several orders of magnitude greater than those reported for other materials and could potentially compete with existing commercial hydraulic systems. Furthermore, unlike other materials-based systems that rely on bimorph structures to translate infinitesimally small volume changes into observable deflections, this device can direct all of its output towards linear motion. We show here that an unoptimized actuator prototype can produce volume and pressure changes close to the theoretically predicted values, with maximum stress (70 kPa) limited only by the mechanical strength of the apparatus. Expansion is very rapid and scales with applied current density. Retraction depends on the catalytic nature of the electrode, and state-of-the-art commercial fuel cell electrodes should allow rates surpassing 0.9 mL's-1.cm-2 and 370 kPa's-1.cm-2. We anticipate that this approach will provide a new direction for producing scalable, low-weight, high performance actuators that will be useful in a broad range of applications.
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