Optical fiber sensors are becoming increasingly popular. Their biggest advantage is mainly resistance over electromagnetic interference and passivity in terms of power supply at the measuring point. Where the highest precision measurement and the highest responsibility is required, fiber-optic sensors are the best solution. In recent years, many studies about Bragg grating, being used in sensor applications, has been published. The development of these sensors has made a huge progress and the range of application is increasing rapidly. Bragg gratings are already widely used in industry, construction and are becoming more and more substantive in critical infrastructure. This article deals with an implementation of Bragg gratings into the geotextile and the creation of complex sensory elements. These sensor elements can be used to measure non-electric quantities (pressure stress, temperature, etc.). Selection of suitable geotextiles and combining them is an important step. From a sensory ability point of view, it is necessary to ensure the best possible transfer of the measured quantity to the geotextile and the Bragg grating. It follows to material selection and, above all, to appropriate distribution of sensory gratings within the geotextile. At the same time, it must also serve as a optical fiber protection that is very sensitive to a mechanical damage. It is necessary to ensure a correct fixation of the optical fiber with the Bragg grating. The assumption is that the geotextile will be stressed by pressure and tension. Thus, the optical fiber will be stretched in the geotextile and must not be released.
Oil accidents largely occur due to mining and transport by tankers, but also due to the pipeline transport. The reason can be a leakage of the pipelines and their damage caused by their age or external influences. The leaks of oil into the soil present a high risk because of their inconspicuousness, especially in case of a slow leak, which may go unnoticed for a while. Petroleum products are soluble in water, which may lead to the contamination of the surrounding groundwater. Self-monitoring of these transport systems is an important part of their operation. This article deals with the measuring of the leak by petroleum products using optical fibers. During the measuring, we use a distributed temperature system (DTS). The DTS is based on a principle of an optical reflectometer, i.e. the light impulse is transmitted to the fiber, part of the impulse returns back to the detector due to optical scattering. The phenomenon of the returning part of the light impulse is called the Stimulated Raman Scattering. The DTS can measure temperature along the entire length of the fiber in real time. Basically, we can imagine a thousand of sensors along the measured track with the accuracy of 1 meter. In this case, we have an optical cable laid down along the testing polygon. This testing polygon is intended to simulate the transport of the oil products in the pipelines. Many different leaks are simulated here. The measuring is based on the volatility of petroleum products and their ability to evaporate. The surface of the object, from which the oil evaporates, decreases in temperature. Sudden change in temperature at a given point detects a possible leakage of petroleum products. This leak can be immediately pinpointed with the accuracy of 1 meter and necessary intervention can be performed.
Oil accidents largely occur due to mining and transport by tankers, but also due to the pipeline transport. The reason can be a leakage of the pipelines and their damage caused by their age or external influences. The leaks of oil into the soil present a high risk because of their inconspicuousness, especially in case of a slow leak, which may go unnoticed for a while. Petroleum products are soluble in water, which may lead to the contamination of the surrounding groundwater. Self-monitoring of these transport systems is an important part of their operation. This article deals with the measuring of the leak by petroleum products using optical fibers. During the measuring, we use a distributed temperature system (DTS). The DTS is based on a principle of an optical reflectometer, i.e. the light impulse is transmitted to the fiber, part of the impulse returns back to the detector due to optical scattering. The phenomenon of the returning part of the light impulse is called the Stimulated Raman Scattering. The DTS can measure temperature along the entire length of the fiber in real time. Basically, we can imagine a thousand of sensors along the measured track with the accuracy of 1 meter. In this case, we have an optical cable laid down along the testing polygon. This testing polygon is intended to simulate the transport of the oil products in the pipelines. Many different leaks are simulated here. The measuring is based on the volatility of petroleum products and their ability to evaporate. The surface of the object, from which the oil evaporates, decreases in temperature. Sudden change in temperature at a given point detects a possible leakage of petroleum products. This leak can be immediately pinpointed with the accuracy of 1 meter and necessary intervention can be performed.
TThe paper discuss about aging of the passive optical couplers in their burdened high temperature. The article focuses on applied research and experimental development of resources for safety operation of optical networks in environment with higher temperature. It addresses issues of accelerated aging of optical fiber components in their burdened with high temperature. How does temperature influence on optical network elements? It is necessary to specify the changes in the optical coupler and find out why these changes occur. This article is devoted experimental measurement of the impact of temperature loading on the geometrical parameters of optical beam of SM optical FBT couplers. In the paper there are compared couplers of different manufacturers and same dividing ratios of output power 1:8. Optical passive component were continuously exposed to temperature 95°C for long time period. Measurements are focused on the parameters of geometry of optical beam. Graphical and mathematical detect changes in the dissemination of energy coupler after long lasting dose of temperature loading are useful to understand the phenomenon of accelerated aging elements of optical networks in environments with an higher temperature.
Authors of this article focused on the analysis of the use of distributed fiber-optic technology for security monitoring of structural loads of road and motorway tunnels. Authors focused on measurements of deformation utilizing Brillouin Time Domain Reflectometry (BOTDR). The principle is based on the measurement of the stimulated Brillouin scattering. The article describes the load of tunnel based on the real measurements made during the construction of the motorway tunnel in the Slovakia Republic in a time horizon of several months. Experiments were carried out with standard optical telecommunication cable with water-absorbing aramid yarns and jacketing of diameter 4.2 mm. The outcome of this article is an introductory analysis the use of fiber-optic technology for security monitoring of structural loads for road and motorway tunnels.
Fiber-optic sensors are one of the dynamically developing areas of photonics, which is today one of the key technologies.
Here include even fiber optic interferometers, allowing very sensitive sensing, they are immune to electromagnetic
interference and are entirely passive regarding electric power supply. This type of sensor is dependent on the phase shift,
the principle of the function based on interference of light. Fiber optic interferometers are used especially in areas that
require high sensitivity and measurement accuracy. The fundamental problem of fiber optic interferometry is a proposal
storing and fixing the measuring arm of the interferometer and its influence on the frequency range and sensitivity of the
interferometer. The authors focused on this issue and analyzed different types of fixing materials. We used a total of 8
different fixation elements with the different composition. We defined the standardized method of fixation and compared
it with a reference measurement without fixation. For the analysis of the frequency characteristic of the prototype was
used generator harmonic signal with fixed amplitude signal. Sensitivity verified using the size of the amplitude response.
The signal processed by the application written in LabView development environment. The results clearly showed that it
is necessary to pay attention to fixation materials in the design of the measuring arm of the interferometer for use in
practical applications. In the frequency range, thanks to the fixing material increased the value of bandwidth about value
2430Hz against the reference measurements. The sensitivity of the interferometer has increased threefold. The results
verified by retesting assembled prototype.
Distributed temperature sensing systems (DTS) are based on the principle of time-domain reflectometry where an optical fiber acts as a temperature sensor. DTS is capable of measuring the temperature along the optical fiber using the nonlinear phenomenon referred as Raman scattering. The biggest advantage of such sensing system is the use of an optical fiber itself as a sensor which gives the benefits of electromagnetic interference immunity, low sensor cost, measurement distances up to 10 kilometers and the safe use in flammable and corrosive environments. Fiber optic DTS can be therefore used in the environments and processes in which the application of conventional sensors is impossible. This article discusses the use of DTS for the moisture measurement in the masonry. In structures with built-in optical fiber, the immediate detection and location of moisture are possible. To perform the measurements an experimental brick wall has been built and between each wall layer the optical fiber was placed. The wall was built in stainless steel tub with a drain valve and was placed on a mobile trolley. The dimensions of the wall were 106 x 100 x 30 cm. The actual measurements were carried out in two stages. In the first, the tub was filled with water and the temperature change associated with the gradual increase of moisture inside the wall was measured. This measurement lasted until the saturation which was the time when the wall has no more moisture to adopt. The second stage then examined the evolution of the temperature inside the wall during gradual desiccation until the time when the temperature inside the wall was uniform between all layers.
Authors of this article analyzed the influence of the cover layer in combination with the fixation material to measure
deformation with the distributed system Brillouin Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (BOTDR). This system is based
on the principle of measuring stimulated Brillouin scattering, which is frequency dependent on the measured temperature
and the mechanical stress of the optical fiber. Standard telecommunication optical fiber G.652.D was used for
experiments to verify whether this widely used type of fibers initially intended for telecommunication transmissions is
suitable for measuring the deformation with the distributed system BOTDR. Knowing the impact of encapsulation type
optical fiber is important in the use and implementation in practical applications. The results clearly show that it is
important to pay attention to the implementation type of optical fiber. Based on post-analysis, it was determined the most
appropriate implementation of optical fiber for optimal sensitivity in practical applications.
The monitoring of building structures deformations and testing of construction materials resilience are very important
processes in the development and production of given materials and structures. This paper deals with the concrete
deflection measurement using fiber optic distributed strain system. The own principle of the measurement evaluation is
based on stimulated Brillouin scattering. In this paper, we explore the use of different types of optical fibers and the
possibilities of their fixing. Above all, we are focusing on the possibility of their attachment to the measured objects. This
is the most important step of the whole process that most affects the functionality and accuracy of measurement.
The monitoring of building structures deformations and testing of construction materials resilience are very important processes in the development and production of given materials and structures. Undesirable or excessive deformations of materials are phenomena which are unacceptable in construction, especially in supporting structures. These issues are currently monitored by electromechanical sensor in most cases. It is a classic technique when the sensor measures the material stress at the point of its installation. This paper deals with the concrete deflection measurement using fiber optic distributed strain system. This system uses optical fiere as a sensor and operates at the principle of measurement of Brillouin frequencies. The mechanical stress on the optical fiber causes shift of these frequencies. This change is subsequently converted to stress unit micro-strain. In our experiments, the optical fiber was embedded in concrete along its whole length. The advantage of this system is that the measurement is carrying out along the entire fiber length with spatial resolution around 50 cm, so it is possible continuously measure several thousands of points at the distance of several kilometers.
Nowadays, metallic cables are produced so as to avoid the maximum allowable temperature of the cable by the normal operation and the maximum allowable temperature for short-circuit the exceeding the maximum allowable internal temperature. The temperature increase is an unwanted phenomena causing losses in the cable and its abrasion. Longterm overload can lead to damaging of the cable or to the risk of fire in extreme cases. In our work, we present the temperature distribution measurement inside the metallic cables using distributed temperature system. Within the cooperation with manufacturer of the metallic cables, optical fibers were implemented into these cables. The cables are double coated and the fibers are allocated between these coatings and also in the centre of the cable. Thus we are able to measure the temperature inside the cable and also on the surface temperature along the whole cable length with spatial resolution 1 m during the cable heating. This measurement method can be also used for short-circuit prediction and detection, because this phenomena is always accompanied with temperature increase. Distributed temperature systems are already successfully implemented in temperature measurements in industry environment, such as construction, sewer systems, caliducts etc. The main advantage of these systems is electromagnetic resistance, low application price and the possibility of monitoring several kilometers long distances.
Fiber optic distributed temperature sensing systems (DTS) are based on the principle of reflectometer and allow us to measure the temperature along the optical fiber. Optical fiber in these systems is used as a temperature sensor which can measure up to thousands of points simultaneously. DTS sensors use nonlinear phenomenon known as Raman scattering for temperature measurement. The advantages of this system include immunity to electromagnetic radiation, low cost of optical fiber, the possibility of measurement to a distance of 10 km and safe use in flammable or corrosive environments. The small size of optical fiber allows using in applications where the dimensions of the other sensors were problematic. A typical example of the DTS application is the fire detection in tunnels and buildings at risk, detection of water leaks on dikes and dams or monitoring of temperature in mine shafts. This article deals with the measurement of temperature transmission over various insulation layers using the DTS system. One of the problems of temperature transmission is that most of the sensors cannot measure the entire temperature profile but only allows a point measurement. This problem is solved by DTS systems with optical fibers. Optical fiber, due to its small size, can be applied among various insulation layers that were formed by rock wool. Three sensory layers formed by rings of multimode optical tightbuffered fiber with 50/125 micron core/cladding dimension were applied. The layers were linked together allowing a direct comparison of measured temperature. Rows of rings were placed on the margins and one was in the middle. Individual rings were linked together into the horizontal lines. Thus we were able to cover the whole surface of the insulation layers. Measurement was carried out in a closed air-conditioned room for 37 hours. Graphs with the progress of temperature at time and place were compiled from the measured data.
Nowadays, the power cables are manufactured to fulfill the following condition – the highest allowable temperature of
the cable during normal operation and the maximum allowable temperature at short circuit conditions cannot exceed the
condition of the maximum allowable internal temperature. The distribution of the electric current through the conductor
leads to the increase of the amplitude of electrons in the crystal lattice of the cables material. The consequence of this
phenomenon is the increase of friction and the increase of collisions between particles inside the material, which causes
the temperature increase of the carrying elements. The temperature increase is unwanted phenomena, because it is
causing losses. In extreme cases, the long-term overload leads to the cable damaging or fire. This paper deals with the
temperature distribution measurement inside the power cables using distributed temperature system. With cooperation
with Kabex company, the tube containing optical fibers was installed into the center of power cables. These fibers,
except telecommunications purposes, can be also used as sensors in measurements carrying out with distributed
temperature system. These systems use the optical fiber as a sensor and allow the continual measurement of the
temperature along the whole cable in real time with spatial resolution 1 m. DTS systems are successfully deployed in
temperature measurement applications in industry areas yet. These areas include construction, drainage, hot water etc.
Their advantages are low cost, resistance to electromagnetic radiation and the possibility of real time monitoring at the
distance of 8 km. The location of the optical fiber in the center of the power cable allows the measurement of internal
distribution of the temperature during overloading the cable. This measurement method can be also used for prediction
of short-circuit and its exact location.
KEYWORDS: Connectors, Temperature metrology, Signal attenuation, Polishing, Single mode fibers, Statistical analysis, Optical fibers, Interfaces, Thermography, Data modeling
High requirements in terms of purity, quality, mechanical design and method of grinding are placed on the optical
connectors. Connectors are mostly exhibited to the negative effects, such as temperature, humidity, dusty environments,
etc. The effects of temperature on the optical fiber are already known and well described. However, the way in which the
temperature change has effect on different types of connectors is not yet well understood and validated. Therefore it was
necessary to find the answers within this article to the questions whether a change in temperature has the effect on the
connector return loss and if so how big. The dependence of the attenuation coefficient on temperature change for the
specific connector is also studied within the article. This allows determining how significant influence the choice of the
type of ferrule on the return loss is. The three most commonly used types of connectors SC, FC and E-2000 with PC and
APC polishing were selected. To describe the negative effects the dependence of return loss on temperature was chosen.
The return loss was chosen because it is one of the key parameters that describes connectors and is measured in practice.
Measuring instruments from EXFO model AXS-200/350 were used for the measurements. Measurements were carried
out on single-mode fiber SMF 652.D at wavelengths of 1310 nm and 1550 nm. The transmission method was selected
for the measurement. Measurements on each connector were performed 30 times and statistical model was compiled
from the measured return loss.
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