The Soft X-ray Imager instrument on the ESA THESEUS mission will provide high-energy imaging and spectroscopy observations of fast transients, providing significant steps forward in our understanding and characterisation of the early Universe. The instrument will utilise high performance microchannel plate optics (MPOs) and some of the first X-ray optimised CMOS devices to be used for space applications. The instrument team are currently developing a flight-like prototype instrument in order to enable full and appropriate characterisation of the instrument, and in particular the performance of candidate detectors. Here we present early results from the focal plane requirement study programme (including performance modelling and trade-off studies).
Einstein Probe is a Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) mission due for launch at the end of 2022 with its primary goals to discover high-energy transients and monitor variable objects. The mission consists of two instruments, the Wide field X-ray Telescope (WXT), a lobster eye X-ray telescope consisting of twelve identical modules; and the Follow-up X-ray Telescope (FXT), which is a traditional Wolter X-ray telescope, which is jointly developed by CAS, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (MPE). Each of the WXT modules comprise of 36 micro pore optics (MPOs), with a 375 mm focal length, a field of view of more than 3600 square degrees, a goal of 5 arcmin resolution and working in the energy range of 0.5-4 keV. As part of the collaboration between CAS and ESA, the University of Leicester (UoL) is acting as a testing facility and repeatability check for several elements of the WXT optic development. This includes calibration of individual MPOs, temperature measurements on a prototype module, calibration of a qualification module and full calibration of one of the flight module optics. The majority of these tests will be performed in the two X-ray facilities at the University of Leicester, the Tunnel Test Facility (TTF) and the Vertical Test Facility (VTF). Presented here are details of the tests carried out and the results obtained from the first batch of individual MPOs and the plan for the thermal tests of the prototype in the TTF.
The Transient High Energy Sources and Early Universe Surveyor is an ESA M5 candidate mission currently in Phase A, with Launch in ∼2032. The aim of the mission is to complete a Gamma Ray Burst survey and monitor transient X-ray events. The University of Leicester is the PI institute for the Soft X-ray Instrument (SXI), and is responsible for both the optic and detector development. The SXI consists of two wide field, lobster eye X-ray modules. Each module consists of 64 Micro Pore Optics (MPO) in an 8 by 8 array and 8 CMOS detectors in each focal plane. The geometry of the MPOs comprises a square packed array of microscopic pores with a square cross-section, arranged over a spherical surface with a radius of curvature twice the focal length of the optic. Working in the photon energy range 0.3-5 keV, the optimum L/d ratio (length of pore L and pore width d) is upwards of 50 and is constant across the whole optic aperture for the SXI. The performance goal for the SXI modules is an angular resolution of 4.5 arcmin, localisation accuracy of ∼1 arcmin and employing an L/d of 60. During the Phase A study, we are investigating methods to improve the current performance and consistency of the MPOs, in cooperation with the manufacturer Photonis France SAS. We present the optics design of the THESEUS SXI modules and the programme of work designed to improve the MPOs performance and the results from the study.
We are entering a new era for high energy astrophysics with the use of new technology to increase our ability to both survey and monitor the sky. The Soft X-ray Imager (SXI) instrument on the THESEUS mission will revolutionize transient astronomy by using wide-field focusing optics to increase the sensitivity to fast transients by several orders of magnitude. The THESEUS mission is under Phase A study by ESA for its M5 opportunity. THESEUS will carry two large area monitors utilizing Lobster-eye (the SXI instrument) and coded-mask (the XGIS instrument) technologies, and an opticalIR telescope to provide source redshifts using multi-band imaging and spectroscopy. The SXI will operate in the soft (0.3- 5 keV) X-ray band, and consists of two identical modules, each comprising 64 Micro Pore Optics and 8 large-format CMOS detectors. It will image a total field of view of 0.5 steradian instantaneously while providing arcminute localization accuracy. During the mission, the SXI will find many hundreds of transients per year, facilitating an exploration of the earliest phase of star formation and comes at a time when multi-messenger astronomy has begun to provide a new window on the universe. THESEUS will also provide key targets for other observing facilities, such as Athena and 30m class ground-based telescopes.
The Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) is one of the Pasteur Payload instruments within the ESA’s ExoMars mission. The RLS instrument scientific goal consists of perform in-situ Raman spectroscopy over different organic and mineral powder samples of the Mars subsoil. It consists of three main units: SPU (Spectrometer Unit), iOH (Internal Optical Head), ICEU (Instrument Control and Excitation Unit) which are interconnected by an optical and electrical harnesses (OH and EH).
The SPU is one of the most critical units of the RLS instrument. The Engineering Qualification Model (EQM) unit has been already delivered after a proper qualified campaign in a very demanding environment with very restrictive design constraints, including Planetary Protection requirements. Also, a complete set of functional tests had been carried out under representative environment, simulating not only Mars rover´s laboratory conditions (thermal range and pressure), but also the cruise phase. Previously, an exhaustive qualification campaign was developed with two different purposes: to mitigate the risks associated to new optical elements included in the design and without space heritage; and to obtain a detailed comprehension of their behaviour under Mars conditions for facing the Flight Model (FM) optical design with guarantee of success.
EQM results were successful in terms of Engineering, and a SWaP-optimized system had been reached. The acquired knowledge of that model has been used to implement little improvements into SPU FM for acceptance. For operations, a big amelioration has been the reduction of the image ROI on the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) after the improving of the alignment of the inclination degree of the image plane on CCD under the tightly integration constrains, letting to download the minimum necessary data bytes. These improvements achieved by a proper analysis of the image on the SPU CCD will allow to evaluate far better the Raman spectrum effects.
SPU FM Mechanical, Thermal-Vacuum campaign has been already finished in order to accept for flight the current unit which will be already completed and “flight qualified” at RLS system level before the congress. If everything continues on this way, the desired Technology Readiness level, TRL 8 maturity level, will be reported during the following text.
A spectrometer for combined Raman and Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is amongst the different instruments that have been pre-selected for the Pasteur payload of the ExoMars rover. It is regarded as a fundamental, next-generation instrument for organic, mineralogical and elemental characterisation of Martian soil, rock samples and organic molecules. Raman spectroscopy and LIBS will be integrated into a single instrument sharing many hardware commonalities [1]. The combined Raman / LIBS instrument has been recommended as the highest priority mineralogy instrument to be included in the rover’s analytical laboratory for the following tasks: Analyse surface and sub-surface soil and rocks on Mars, identify organics in the search for life and determine soil origin & toxicity.
The synergy of the system is evident: the Raman spectrometer is dedicated to molecular analysis of organics and minerals; the LIBS provides information on the sample’s elemental composition. An international team, under ESA contract and with the leadership of TNO Science and Industry, has built and tested an Elegant Bread Board (EBB) of the combined Raman / LIBS instrument. The EBB comprises a specifically designed, extremely compact, spectrometer with high resolution over a large wavelength range, suitable for both Raman spectroscopy and LIBS measurements. The EBB also includes lasers, illumination and imaging optics as well as fibre optics for light transfer.
A summary of the functional and environmental requirements together with a description of the optical design and its expected performance are described in [2]. The EBB was developed and constructed to verify the instruments’ end-to-end functional performance with natural samples. The combined Raman / LIBS EBB realisation and test results of natural samples will be presented.
For the Flight Model (FM) instrument, currently in the design phase, the Netherlands will be responsible for the design, development and verification of the spectrometer unit, while the UK provides the detector. The differences between the EBB and the FM will be demonstrated.
E. Díaz, A. Moral, C. Canora, G. Ramos, O. Barcos, J. A. Prieto, I. B. Hutchinson, R. Ingley, M. Colombo, R. Canchal, B. Dávila, J. A. R. Manfredi, A. Jiménez, P. Gallego, J. Pla, R. Margoillés, F. Rull, A. Sansano, G. López, A. Catalá, C. Tato
The Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) is one of the Pasteur Payload instruments, within the ESA's Aurora Exploration
Programme, ExoMars mission.
The RLS Instrument will perform Raman spectroscopy on crushed powdered samples deposited on a small container
after crushing the cores obtained by the Rover's drill system.
In response to ESA requirements for delta-PDR to be held in mid 2012, an instrument BB programme has been
developed, by RLS Assembly Integration and Verification (AIV) Team to achieve the Technology Readiness level 5
(TRL5), during last 2010 and whole 2011. Currently RLS instrument is being developed pending its CoDR (Conceptual
Design Revision) with ESA, in October 2011.
It is planned to have a fully operative breadboard, conformed from different unit and sub-units breadboards that would
demonstrate the end-to-end performance of the flight representative units by 2011 Q4.
F. Rull, A. Sansano, E. Díaz, M. Colombo, T. Belenguer, M. Fernández, V. Guembe, R. Canchal, B. Dávila, A. Sánchez, H. Laguna, G. Ramos, C. González, D. Fraga, P. Gallego, I. Hutchinson, R. Ingley, J. Sánchez, C. Canora, A. Moral, S. Ibarmia, J. A. Prieto, J. A. R. Manfredi, P. Cabo, C. Díaz, A. Jiménez, J. Pla, R. Margoillés
The Raman Laser Spectrometer instrument is included in ExoMars program Pasteur payload and it is focused on the
Mars samples analytical analysis of the geochemistry content and elemental composition of the observed crushed
samples obtained by the Rover.
One of the most critical Units of the RLS is the Spectrometer unit (SPU) that performs Raman spectroscopy technique
and operates in a very demanding environment (operative temperature: from -40 ºC to 6 ºC) with very restrictive design
constraints. It is a very small optical instrument capable to cope with 0.09 nm/pixel of resolution. The selected solution is
based on a single transmisive holographic grating.
At this stage of the project SPU Team is preparing the Conceptual Design Review that will take place at the end of
October 2011.
The Raman Laser Spectrometer is scheduled for launch on board the ESA ExoMars mission in 2018. Its purpose is to
perform analysis of the Raman signal scattered from crushed core samples retrieved from up to 2m below the Martian
surface. In support of this activity an RLS breadboard instrument has been assembled whose focal plane incorporates an
inverted mode CCD cooled to between -10°C and -40°C. The thermal, mechanical and detector design of this elegant
breadboard instrument focal plane is described, and the system performance is evaluated in terms of the noise
characteristics and dynamic range.
Mars-XRD is an X-ray diffractometer developed for the in situ mineralogical analysis of the Martian
soil. The main components of the Mars-XRD experiment are: a Fe55 radioactive source, a collimator
and a CCD-based detector system. For spectroscopic requirements and quality of the machined micrograin
of the sample, the beam section should not be larger then 1 × 10 mm2 at sample distance. The
current collimator baseline is based on a two-windows system that uses about 20% of the total source
emitting surface. To improve the X-ray flux, we are studying a collimator with converging blades which
permits to use the entire source emission and tune the beam section. In order to better estimate the
efficiency of this collimator and because of the high number of variables, a C++ program has been written
that look for the best blades configuration among billion of combinations. In addition to the collimator
configuration, this software simulator gives the sample photons distribution for different angles of the tilt
of the source and for each couple of blades. The optimized collimator transmits a flux 30% higher than
a system with blades with the same angular aperture and 5 times higher than a two windows collimator.
Moreover the target photon distribution is a triangle function well focused on the sample surface instead
of an irregular function obtained with the previous system. Higher performances arise with the source
perpendicular to the source-sample direction. Thanks to this optimization we expect to strongly improve
the resolution of the diffraction pattern which is the main goal of the current activities of the instrument
development. This software simulator could be used also for the optimization of collimator system for
the other wavelength and applications (e.g. radiotherapy).
This project is based on the design and testing of a CCD (charge coupled device) based detector to be used for the
simultaneous collection of x-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) data from powdered rock samples. The
detector designed for this project uses four e2v technologies CCD
30-11 (FI, AIMO) devices tiled in a curved geometry
to allow the centre of each of the four CCDs to be exactly 120 mm from the sample. The CCDs are operated in single
photon counting mode which allows the detector to simultaneously determine the spatial position of diffracted x-rays as
well as resolve the energy of characteristic x-rays fluoresced from the sample. Energy discrimination is then used to
reveal the XRD data and radial integration is performed on the four CCD images to extract the "2θ vs. intensity"
spectrum. The project also involves the use of a high brightness x-ray micro-source from Bede Scientific Instruments,
used to deliver a focused beam of low divergent x-rays to the sample. Collimation and monochromation are also
introduced into the system to produce a 93% monochromatic beam of CuKθ x-rays, delivered to the powder sample
through a 50 µm spot. Details into the design of the CCD array are discussed as well as results presented from various
samples.
KEYWORDS: Charge-coupled devices, Electrons, Monte Carlo methods, Point spread functions, Calibration, Radiation effects, Data modeling, Telescopes, Modulation transfer functions, Motion models
ESA's Gaia astrometry mission is due for launch in 2011. The astrometric instrument focal plane will have an area of up to 0.5m2 and will contain more than 100 CCDs. These will be operated in Time Delay and Integration mode in order to track and observe sources whilst the telescopes continuously scan the sky. Gaia's target for astrometric precision of a few millionths of an arc second, places extreme demands on focal plane thermo--mechanical stability and electronics performance. The CCDs themselves are large area, back illuminated, full--frame, four phase devices. They require maximum efficiency for observing the majority of (faint) objects, yet must simultaneously be able to handle very bright objects that will regularly cross the field of view. Achieving the final astrometric precision will also require excellent noise performance and MTF. In addition to demanding excellent performance from each CCD, they will need to be produced in large numbers which raises production and yield issues. When analyzing Gaia data it will be essential to understand and calibrate CCD behaviour correctly, including the expected performance degradation due to radiation damage. This is being addressed through comprehensive testing and the development of CCD models.
In recent years the XEUS mission concept has evolved and has been the subject of several industrial studies. The mission concept has now matured to the point that it could be proposed for a Phase A study and subsequent flight programme. The key feature of XEUS will be its X-ray optic with collecting area ~30-100x that of XMM. The mission is envisaged at an orbit around the L2 point in space, and is formed from two spacecraft; one for the mirrors, and the other for the focal plane detectors. With a focal length of 50m, the plate scale of the optic is 6.5x that of XMM, which using existing focal plane technology will reduce the effective field of view to a few arc minutes. Cryogenic instrumentation, with detector sizes of a few mm can only be used for narrow field studies of target objects, and a wide field instrument is under consideration using a DEPFET pixel array to image out to a diameter of 5 arcminutes, requiring an array of dimension 70mm. It is envisaged to extend this field of view possibly out to 15 arcminutes through the use of an outer detection ring comprised of MOS CCDs
This paper describes the design and operation of a low noise analogue readout system for X-ray CCDs (at up-to 1MHz pixel rate) for e2v's CCDs. A major part of the system is Correlated Double Sampler (CDS) Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) designed in collaboration with the CCLRC. Here we discuss the ASIC specification, design and applications, together with the measured performance.
The inclusion of a charge injection structure on a charge coupled device (CCD) allows for the mitigation of charge transfer loss which can be caused by radiation induced charge trapping defects. Any traps present in the pixels of the CCD are filled by the injected charge as it is swept through the device and consequently, the charge transfer efficiency is improved in subsequently acquired images. To date, a number of different types of CCD have been manufactured featuring a variety of charge injection techniques. The e2v Technologies CCD22, used in the EPIC MOS focal plane instruments of XMM-Newton, is one such device and is the subject of this paper. A detailed understanding of charge injection operation and the use of charge injection to mitigate charge transfer losses resulting from radiation damage to CCDs will benefit a number of space projects planned for the future, including the ESA GAIA and X-ray Evolving Universe Spectrometry (XEUS) missions.
The charge injection structure and mode of operation of the CCD22 are presented, followed by a detailed analysis of the uniformity and repeatability of the charge injection amplitude across the columns of the device. The effects of proton irradiation on the charge injection characteristics are also presented, in particular the effect of radiation induced bright pixels on the injected charge level.
The next generation of X-ray astronomy instruments will require position sensitive detectors in the form of charge coupled devices (CCDs) for X-ray spectroscopy and imaging that will have the ability to probe the X-ray universe with a greater efficiency. This will require the development of CCDs with structures that will improve on the quantum efficiency of the current state of the art over a broader spectral range in addition to reducing spectral features, which may affect spectral resolution and signal to background levels. These devices will also have to be designed to withstand the harsh radiation environments associated with orbits that extend beyond the Earth’s magnetosphere. The next generation X-ray telescopes will incorporate larger X-ray optics that will allow deeper observations of the X-ray universe and sensors will have to compensate for this by an increased readout speed. This study will aim to describe some of the results obtained from test CCD structures that may fit many of the requirements described above.
The ESA cornerstone mission GAIA will perform astrometric, photometric and spectroscopic measurements and is due for launch in 2010 into L2 orbit. The astrometric telescope system will catalogue the position of over 109 objects down to 20th magnitude and perform broadband photometry. The spectroscopic telescope will provide narrow-band photometry and feed a Radial Velocity Spectrometer which will accurately determine the radial velocities of objects down to 17-18 magnitude. This paper discusses the characteristics of the detectors envisaged for the focal plane of the RVS instrument.
We have fabricated a new experimental pixel array using 2mm-thick CdZnTe. The trial arrays have been bump-bonded to the Rockwell PICNIC readout IC which provides low noise read out of pixel signals. First measurements are presented from the detector characterisation, which in particular, demonstrate that a very high bond yield (>99%) was
achieved. It is envisaged that these detectors will be suitable for future X-ray astronomy and planetary missions as well as ground based applications such as non-destructive testing, threat detection and baggage scanning.
The ESA cornerstone mission GAIA will perform astrometric and photometric measurements on one billion objects, and is due for launch in 2010 into L2 orbit. The key astrometric focal plane will comprise over 180 large area CCDs with a focal surface of about 0.5m2. The 45x60mm2 CCDs for the focal plane will include technical features new to CCDs. This paper will discuss the characteristics of these devices, including the measures to improve the radiation hardness of the technology.
The effect of different proton fluences on the performance of two E2V Technologies CCD47-20 devices was investigated with particular emphasis given to the analysis of 'random telegraph signal' (RTS) generation, bright pixel generation and induced changes in base dark current level. The results show that bright pixel frequency increases as the mean energy of the proton beam is increased, and that the base dark current level after irradiation scales with the level of ionization damage. For the RTS study, 500 pixels on one device were monitored over a twelve hour period. This data set revealed a number of distinct types of pixel change level fluctuation and a system of classification has been devised. Previously published RTS data is discussed and reviewed in light of the new data.
XEUS is the post-XMM next generation x-ray observatory which is currently under study by ESA. The mission aims to image the x-ray early universe through the study of feint, high red-shift objects. To provide sufficient photons to enable spectroscopy on these distant objects requires a telescope collecting area greatly in excess of those in use today, and an x-ray optic with collecting area ~100x of XMM is ultimately envisaged. With a focal length of 50m, the plate scale of the optic is 6.5x that of XMM, which using existing focal plane technology will reduce the effective field of view to a few arc minutes. Cryogenic instrumentation, with detector sizes of a few mm can only be used for narrow field studies of target objects, and a wide field instrument is under consideration using a DEPFET pixel array to image out to a diameter of 5 arcminutes, requiring an array of dimension 70mm. Since the useful field of view of the XEUS optic will extend to a diameter of 30 arcminutes, the potential of the optic could be very under-utilized. Here we propose an extension to the wide field imager, the E-WFI, comprised of a ring array of CCDs which will increase the coverage of the focal plane, and greatly increase the serendipitous science resulting from the mission. Here we describe the first design concept for the E-WFI, and discuss the technical advancements in MOS CCD technology which will enhance the science of the mission.
The essential optical components of the Swift X-ray Telescope (XRT) are already developed items. They are: the flight spare x-ray mirror from the JET-X/Spectrum-X program and a MOS CCD (CCD22) of the type currently operating in orbit as part of the EPIC focal plane camera on the XMM- Newton. The JET-X mirrors were first calibrated at the Max Plank Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics' (MPE) Panter facility, Garching, Germany in 1996. Half energy widths (HEW) of 16 arc seconds at 1.5 keV were confirmed for the two flight mirrors and the flight spare. The calibration of the flight spare was repeated at Panter in July 2000 in order to establish whether any changes had occurred during the four years that the mirror had been in storage at the OAB, Milan, Italy. This results reported in this paper, confirm that the resolution of the JET-X mirrors has remained stable over this storage period. In an extension of this test program, the flight spare EPIC camera was installed at the focus of the JET-X mirror to simulate the optical system of the Swift X-ray telescope. On-axis and off-axis point spread functions (PSFs) were measured and calibration data sets were used to obtain centroid positions of X-ray point sources. The results confirmed Swift's ability to determine the centroid positions of sources at 100mCrab brightness to better than 1 arc second and provided a calibration of the centroiding process as a function of source flux and off axis angle. The presence of background events in the image frame introduced errors in the centroiding process, making the choice of centroiding algorithm important. Algorithm performance and the trade-off between processing speed and centroiding accuracy were investigated.
We present the latest design concepts of CCDs for the next generation of X-ray astronomical applications together with test results of new detector developments for these applications. In particular we consider ways of overcoming the fundamental limitations of these detectors, namely area coverage and low readout speeds. The manufacture of a high yielding, highly efficient CCD with a well understood response at all energies remains a high priority and we discuss our program to achieve this goal. Amongst other features: increased deep depletion and state of the art noise performance will be examined.
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