The goal of this study was to investigate how nano-channels created by laser irradiation can affect the diffusion properties of cartilage. Nano-channels were created using a 400 µm fiber optic and a 1550 nm laser. Optical polarization images confirmed the creation of nano-channels. Samples were placed in a homemade diffusion chamber, containing CuSO4 solution and distilled water in the donor and recipient chambers, respectively. T1 weighted MR images were taken over several time points and processed to analyze the rate of diffusion through each sample. Peak diffusion occurred at 24 hours for treated samples and 48 hours for native samples. At 24-hours, diffusion rate was approximately 50% higher in treated samples. At 72-hours, diffusion rate was 9% higher in treated samples. Our results highlight that laser treatment could improve treatment of diseases and injuries of cartilage. Optical confocal imaging is underway to investigate the microscopic morphology of the treated samples.
The goal of this study was to develop reliable technique for measuring optical properties of renal calculi. As the first step, the technique was tested on artificial (Bego) stones. Absorption coefficients and reduced scattering coefficients of samples at 1940 nm were evaluated from total transmittance and diffuse reflectance measurements using an Inverse Monte Carlo technique. Optical properties were determined before and after soaking samples in distilled water. Before soaking, samples had absorption coefficients of 0.12±0.03 /mm, and reduced scattering coefficients of 7.72±2.34 /mm. After soaking, absorption coefficients were 0.21±0.04 /mm, and reduced scattering coefficients were 8.53±3.90 /mm. Future studies aim to determine optical properties of natural stones.
In this work, we present the first histological in vivo and ex vivo study of effects of fractional Er fiber laser (wavelength 1550 nm, peak power 25 W) on keratinized gum and alveolar mucosa for gum regeneration. Biopsy with subsequent NBTC staining was used as primary evaluation technique. Ex vivo, porcine tissue model was used. Effects of pulse energy, beam diameter, and beam divergence were investigated in detail. It has been demonstrated that under optimal conditions columns up to 800 μm in depth could be reliably produced with 130 mJ pulses. Clinically, 2 subjects were treated and 4 punch biopsies were collected. The results were compared with ex vivo data. Both ex vivo and in vivo datasets suggest feasibility of a dental fractional system intended for gum regeneration.
Until recently, Laser Diodes (LD) have been limited in their ability to deliver high peak power levels, which, in turn, limited their clinical capabilities. New technological developments made possible advent of “super pulse” LD (SPLD). Moreover, advanced means of smart thermal feedback enable precise control of laser power, thus ensuring safe and optimally efficacious application. In this work, we have evaluated a prototype SPLD system ex vivo. The device provided up to 25 W average and up to 150 W pulse power at 940 nm wavelength. The laser was operated in the thermal feedback-controlled mode, where power of the laser was varied automatically as a function of real-time thermal feedback to maintain constant tip temperature. The system was also equipped with a fiber tip initiated with advanced TiO2 /tungsten technique. Evaluation methods were designed to assess: 1) Speed and depth of cutting; 2) Dimensions of coagulative margin. The SPLD system was compared with industry-leading conventional diode and CO2 devices. The results indicate that the SPLD system provides increase in speed of controlled cutting by a factor of >2 in comparison with the conventional diode laser and approaching that of CO2 device. The produced ratio of the depth of cut to the thermal damage margin was significantly higher than conventional diodes and close to that of the CO2 system, suggesting optimal hemostasis conditions. SPLD technology with real-time temperature control has a potential for creating a new standard of care in the field of precision soft tissue surgery.
Recently, a Thulium (Tm) fiber laser operating at a wavelength of 1940 nm and peak power up to 500 W has been introduced as a promising energy source for laser lithotripsy. Direct comparative studies have demonstrated considerable advantages of Tm fiber laser over the current industry-standard 2100 nm Holmium:YAG (Ho:YAG) device in terms of ablation rate and retropulsion effects. In this work, we investigated avenues of further improving stone ablation efficiency and reducing retropulsion. Specifically, the roles of temporal pulse structure and fiber tip preparation were studied in detail. Experiments were conducted on Bego stone phantoms in an aqueous environment using a computerized 2D stage for controlled scanning of the fiber over the stone surface. High-resolution 3D-enabled optical microscopy was employed to assess both fiber tip damage and stone ablation rate. Retropulsion effects were quantified using a high-speed video camera. Fiber burn back was evaluated as well. Fiber performance could be preserved during prolonged (up to 15 min) procedures when the fiber tip was adequately prepared. Furthermore, the results were compared with available literature for similar experiments performed with the Ho:YAG laser. The data obtained provide an important foundation for optimizing clinical performance of Tm fiber systems for lithotripsy.
Three lasers were directly compared, including the Ho:YAG laser (λ = 2100 nm), Tm fiber laser (λ = 1940 nm) operating in 3 different modes (CW, regular pulse, and super pulse), and blue diode laser (λ = 442 nm) for vaporization and coagulation efficiency for treating blood-rich soft tissues, ex vivo, in a porcine kidney model at quasi-contact cutting in water. In addition, experimental results were compared with published data on performance of KTP laser (λ = 532 nm) at similar experimental settings (Power = 60 W and cutting speed = 2 mm/s). Tm fiber laser in pulsed mode and blue laser produced highest vaporization rates of 3.7 and 3.4 mm3/s, respectively. Tm fiber laser (in both CW and pulsed modes) also produced the largest coagulation zone among the laser sources tested. A carbonization zone was observed for Tm fiber laser in CW and pulsed modes, as well as for the blue diode laser. Tm fiber laser in super-pulse mode and Ho:YAG laser both resulted in irregular coagulation zones without carbonization. Comparison with known data for KTP laser revealed that tissue effects of the blue laser are similar to that of the KTP laser. These results suggest that the combination of the two lasers (Tm fiber and blue diode) in one system may achieve high cutting efficiency and optimal coagulation for hemostasis during surgical treatment. Ex vivo testing of the combined system revealed feasibility of this approach. The combination of the CW Tm fiber laser (120W) and the blue diode laser (60W) emitting through a combination tip were compared with CW 120 W Tm fiber laser alone and 120 W Ho:YAG laser. Vaporization rates measured 34, 28, and 6 mm3/s, and coagulation zones measured 0.6, 1.3, and 1.7 mm, respectively. A carbonization zone was only observed with CW Tm fiber laser. The vaporization rate of combined CW Tm fiber laser / blue diode laser was comparable to published data for KTP laser for equivalent total power. Thus, high-power blue diode laser, Tm fiber laser, and their combination may provide an alternative to conventional Ho:YAG and KTP lasers for applications in urology and other surgical fields.
Fractional laser ablation is one of the relatively safe and minimally invasive methods used to administer micro- and nanoparticles into the skin at sufficiently large depth. In this article, we present the results of delivery of TiO 2 nanoparticles and Al 2 O 3 microparticles into skin. Fractional laser microablation of skin was provided by a system based on a pulsed Er:YAG laser with the following parameters: the wavelength 2940 nm, the pulse energy 3.0 J, and the pulse duration 20 ms. Ex vivo and in vivo human skin was used in the study. The suspensions of titanium dioxide and alumina powder in polyethylene glycol with particle size of about 100 nm and 27 μm, respectively, were used. In the ex vivo experiments, reflectance spectra of skin samples with administered particles were measured and histological sections of the samples were made. In the in vivo experiment, reflectance spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, and clinical photography were used to monitor the skin status during one month after suspension administering. It is shown that particles can be delivered into dermis up to the depth 230 μm and distributed uniformly in the tissue. Spectral measurements confirm that the particles stay in the dermis longer than 1 month.
Result of Monte Carlo simulations of skin optical clearing is presented. The model calculations were carried out with the aim of studying of spectral response of skin under immersion liquids action and calculation of enhancement of light penetration depth. In summary, we have shown that: 1) application of glucose, propylene glycol and glycerol produced significant decrease of light scattering in different skin layers; 2) maximal clearing effect will be obtained in case of optical clearing of skin dermis, however, absorbed light fraction in skin dermis changed insignificantly, independently on clearing agent and place it administration; 3) in contrast to it, the light absorbed fraction in skin adipose layer increased significantly in case of optical clearing of skin dermis. It is very important because it can be used for development of optical methods of obesity treatment; 4) optical clearing of superficial skin layers can be used for decreasing of power of light radiation used for treatment of acne vulgaris.
Accelerated diffusion of water and hyperosmotic optical clearing agents is studied as a result of enhanced epidermal permeability. A lattice of microzones (islets) of damage in stratum corneum is induced using a flash-lamp appliqué system. An optical clearing agent composed of 88% glycerol in aqueous solution is used for all experiments. Research of skin dehydration and glycerol delivery through epidermis at both intact and perforated stratum corneum is presented. The dehydration process induced by both stimuli of evaporation and osmotic agent action is studied by weight measurements. Dynamics of refractive index alteration of both glycerol solution and water during their interaction with skin samples is monitored. The amounts of water escaping from skin through the stratum corneum, due to hyperosmotic-agent action, and glycerol penetrating through the skin sample, are estimated. The results show that the proposed method allows for effective transepidermal water loss and delivery of optical clearing agents.
In present study we have considered diffusion of immersion agent into the skin through thermally pretreated stratum
corneum solving the corresponding diffusion problem. Algorithm of refractive index of interstitial liquid and diffusion
coefficient of immersion agent into biotissue estimations at a creation of lattice-like pattern of localized thermal damage
islets in the stratum corneum, was develop. Theoretical model which sufficiently describes the influence of immersion
agents on skin optical properties was presented. The diffusion coefficient of glycerol into pig skin ex vivo at creating a
lattice of islets of damage in the stratum corneum is 0.84±0.08 μm2/s.
Investigation of skin water loss and clearing agent delivery through stratum corneum is presented. Effectiveness of the
method "lattice of islets of damage" for enhancement of stratum corneum permeability for water and 71% glycerol
solution providing the skin clearing was investigated. Dehydration induced by both stimuli evaporation and osmotic
agent action was studied by weight measurements. Measurements of refractive index dynamics of glycerol and water
during its interaction with skin samples were carried out. The results have shown that proposed method allows effective
transepidermal water loss and delivery of optical clearing agents.
It has been known for many years that low level laser (or light) therapy (LLLT) can ameliorate the pain, swelling
and inflammation associated with various forms of arthritis. Light is absorbed by mitochondrial chromophores
leading to an increase in ATP, reactive oxygen species and/or cyclic AMP production and consequent gene
transcription via activation of transcription factors. However, despite many reports about the positive effects of
LLLT in medicine, its use remains controversial. Our laboratory has developed animal models designed to
objectively quantify response to LLLT and compare different light delivery regimens. In the arthritis model we
inject zymosan into rat knee joints to induce inflammatory arthritis. We have compared illumination regimens
consisting of a high and low fluence (3 J/cm2 and 30 J/cm2), delivered at a high and low irradiance (5 mW/cm2 and 50 mW/cm2) using 810-nm laser light daily for 5 days, with the effect of conventional corticosteroid
(dexamethasone) therapy. Results indicated that illumination with 810-nm laser is highly effective (almost as good
as dexamethasone) at reducing swelling and that longer illumination time was more important in determining
effectiveness than either total fluence delivered or irradiance. Experiments carried out using 810-nm LLLT on
excisional wound healing in mice also confirmed the importance of longer illumination times. These data will be of
value in designing clinical trials of LLLT.
Result of Monte Carlo simulations of skin optical clearing is presented. The model calculations were carried out with the aim of studying of spectral response of skin under immersion liquids action and calculation of enhancement of light penetration depth. In summary, we have shown that: 1) application of glucose, propylene glycol and glycerol produced significant decreasing of light scattering in different skin layers; 2) maximal clearing effect will be obtained in case of optical clearing of skin dermis, however, absorbed light fraction in skin dermis changed insignificantly, independently from clearing agent and place it administration; 4) in contrast to it, the light absorbed fraction in skin adipose layer increased significantly in case of optical clearing of skin dermis. It is very important because it can be used for development of optical methods of obesity treatment.
Controlling of optical properties of skin is of great interest for skin diseases monitoring and phototherapy. Glycerol, as the
most effective optical clearing agent, was applied in this study. Effects of osmotic properties of glycerol on optical clearing
of the human skin have been investigated. Two main mechanisms of optical clearing at a creation of lattice-like pattern of
localized thermal damage islets in the SC, glycerol diffusion into damaged skin and tissue dehydration, were discussed.
High level of light scattering in mammalian skin significantly deteriorates the effectiveness and precision of light delivery to intra- and subcutaneous targets in therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Optical immersion based on the refractive index matching of tissue scattering centers with surrounding matter via introduction of an exogenous indexmatching agent is capable to alleviate the problem. But this process goes slowly enough because of sluggish diffusion of various immersion agents through a stratum corneum (SC) barrier, making a practical realization of this approach difficult. In order to increase the rate of the process we designed the method of accelerating the penetration of optical clearing agents (OCAs) by enhancing skin permeability through a creation of lattice-like pattern of localized thermal damage (ablation) islets in the SC. OCAs, such as glucose, propylene glycol, and glycerol solutions, were applied. Experimental results show a remarkable increase in the rate of optical clearing. The most of results were obtained on in vivo human skin.
Strong light scattering in skin prevents precise targeting of optical energy in therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Optical immersion based on matching refractive mdcx of scattering centers with that of surrounding matter through introduction of an exogenous index-matching agent can alleviate the problem. However, slow diffusion of the index-matching agent through skin barrier makes practical implementation of this approach difficult. We propose a method of accelerating penetration of the index-matching compounds by enhancing skin permeability through creating a lattice of micro-zones (islets) of limited thermal damage in the stratum comeum. Two index-matching agents, glucose and glycerol, were tested. Glycerol used as index-matching agent gave noticeably better clearance then 40% glucose solution.
The near-infrared (NIR) laser radiation due to its high penetration depth is widely used in phototherapy. In application to skin appendages a high selectivity of laser treatment is needed to prevent light action on surrounding tissues. Indocyanine Green (ICG) dye may provide a high selectivity of treatment due to effective ICG uploading by a target and its narrow band of considerable absorption just at the wavelength of the NIR diode laser. The goal of this study is to demonstrate the efficacy of the NIR diode laser phototherapy in combination with topical application of ICG suggested for soft and thermal treatment of acne vulgaris. 28 volunteers with facile or back-located acne were enrolled. Skin sites of subjects were stained by ICG and irradiated by NIR laser-diode light (803 or 809 nm). Untreated, only stained and only light irradiated skin areas served as controls. For soft acne treatment, the low-intensity (803 nm, 10 - 50 mW/cm2, 5-10 min) or the medium-intensity (809 nm, 150 - 190 mW/cm2, 15 min) protocols were used. The single and multiple (up to 8-9) treatments were provided. The individual acne lesions were photothermally treated at 18 W/cm2 (803 nm, 0.5 sec) without skin surface cooling or at 200 W/cm2 (809 nm, 0.5 sec) with cooling. The results of the observations during 1-2 months after the completion of the treatment have shown that only in the case of the multiple-wise treatment a combined action of ICG and NIR irradiation reduces inflammation and improves skin state during a month without any side effects. At high power densities (up to 200 W/cm2) ICG stained acne inflammatory elements were destructed for light exposures of 0.5 sec. Based on the concept that hair follicle, especially sebaceous gland, can be intensively and selectively stained by ICG due to dye diffusion through pilosebaceous canal and its fast uptake by living microorganisms, by vital keratinocytes of epithelium of the canal and sebaceous duct, and by rapidly proliferating sebocytes, new technologies of soft and thermal acne lesions treatment that could be used in clinical treatment of acne were proposed.
Many diseased states of the brain can result in the displacement of brain tissues and restrict cerebral blood flow, disrupting function in a life-threatening manner. Clinical examples where displacements are observed include venous thromboses, hematomas, strokes, tumors, abscesses, and, particularly, brain edema. For the latter, the brain tissue swells, displacing the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) layer that surrounds it, eventually pressing itself against the skull. Under such conditions, catheters are often inserted into the brain's ventricles or the subarachnoid space to monitor increased pressure. These are invasive procedures that incur increased risk of infection and consequently are used reluctantly by clinicians. Recent studies in the field of biomedical optics have suggested that the presence or absence of the CSF layer can lead to dramatic changes in NIR signals obtained from diffuse reflectance measurements around the head. In this study, we consider how this sensitivity of NIR signals to CSF might be exploited to non-invasively monitor the onset and resolution of brain edema.
A novel approach to the quantitative image reconstruction in diffuse optical tomography is proposed. The special structure of the transport equation is used to formulate the iterative image reconstruction algorithm as a process updating the estimates of the optical properties from the solution of an intermediate tomographic problem The ability of the technique to reconstruct simultaneously maps of both absorption and reduced scattering coefficients in 2D geometry is demonstrated using simulated frequency-domain data. The potential advantages of the new approach include its ability to fully retain the non-linear character of the inverse problem while at the same time avoiding either gradient or Jacobian calculations and eliminating the need in an additional regularization mechanism.
KEYWORDS: Monte Carlo methods, Optical properties, Modulation, Signal detection, Tissue optics, Phase shift keying, Diffusion, Sensors, Data modeling, Scattering
Optical reflectance spectroscopy of turbid media is one of promising novel techniques for diagnostics and monitoring of biological tissues. A widely used approach in the realization of this technique is the application of photon-density waves. Until recently, the frequency-domain techniques have been limited to probing relatively large volumes of tissue. Main reason for this limitation was almost exclusive use of the diffusion approximation for the interpretation of the measured data. The diffusion model becomes invalid for source-detector separations less than several transport mean free paths (approximately 5-7 mm for most of the soft tissues in the near-infrared spectral range). We have developed an inverse technique that allows data processing even at small source-detector separations. This technique is based on a frequency-domain-optiinized Monte Carlo algorithm as a light propagation model. A specially designed acceleration scheme affords using the technique as a forward method in an iterative inverse algorithm. In this paper, a description of the technique is given, and results of simulations and preliminary phantom experiments are presented.
We have developed a new technique to determine the optical properties of turbid media on a spatial scale of several 100 micrometers . This technique is based on transmission measurements into three different solid angles using a microspectrophotometer. An inverse Monte-Carlo simulation was employed to extract the optical properties from the sample under investigation. In this study, we investigated the optical properties of human brain tumor tissue. The transmission measurements were performed in the wavelength range from 400 nm to 800 nm for one spot on the sample. In addition, the histological inhomogeneity of the brain tumor was evaluated by probing the optical properties of different spots on the sample at a fixed wavelength. The resulting scattering coefficients varied between 6.0 and 7.9 mm-1, the absorption coefficients between 0.50 and 0.92 mm-1, and the anisotropy factors between 0.867 and 0.895. These result suggest that this microspectrophotometric technique is suitable to determine the optical properties of an inhomogeneous turbid media as for example a human brain tumor sample with a spatial resolution unattainable by conventional spectrophotometric techniques.
We determined and compared to the optical properties of five samples obtained from xenotransplanted chick embryos chorio- allantoic membrane tumors, five samples obtained from xenotransplanted chick embryos yolk sac membrane tumors, and five samples of concentrated tumor cells suspension (small cell lung carcinoma OAT 75). The absorption coefficient (mu) a, the scattering coefficient (mu) s, the anisotropy factor g, and the reduced scattering coefficient (mu) s' were evaluated in the spectral range from 600 nm to 900 nm with a step width of 10 nm from double integrating sphere measurements using an inverse Monte Carlo technique. The results have shown that the optical properties of the concentrated tumor cell suspension are similar to those of the chorio-allantoic membrane tumor, but are essentially different from the optical properties of the yolk sac membrane tumor. Cell vitality tests have shown that the cells were alive during and after the experiments. Therefore, the tumor cell suspension can serve as an optical model of the chorio-allantoic membrane tumor in situ for testing and developing novel diagnostic and therapeutic techniques.
The optical properties of seven native, seven laser-coagulated (Nd:YAG (lambda) equals 1064 nm, 11 W, 15 min, T less than or equal to 90 degrees Celsius), and seven thermally coagulated (60 min, T less than or equal to 80 degrees Celsius) samples of bovine myocardium were determined. The absorption coefficient (mu) a, the scattering coefficient (mu) s, and the anisotropy factor g were obtained in the spectral range from 1000 nm to 1500 nm from double integrating sphere measurements using an inverse Monte Carlo technique. The results indicate that both, laser coagulation and thermal coagulation increase the (mu) a and (mu) s values by a factor of 2 and 4, respectively, while g is not significantly changed. Conclusion: Thermal denaturation leads to significant changes in the optical properties of bovine myocardium. The changes are comparable to those induced by laser coagulation.
In optics of biotissues it is often required to determine the radiance distribution function of a finite beam propagating through a turbid medium. One particular instance of this problem is the determination of the signal registered by a detector with a limited field of view, placed on the axis of beam propagation. Since most biological tissues exhibit a high anisotropy factor of scattering, the problem can be approached by applying the small-angle approximation of the radiative transfer theory. We have developed a technique for solving the small-angle problem in case of the Henyey-Greenstein phase function. The technique accounts for an arbitrary spatial and angular profile of the incident beam. The results of the numerical tests have shown a good agreement with the predictions of forward Monte Carlo simulations for a variety of optical properties typical for biological tissues.
The development of time-resolved optical diagnostic techniques for biomedical applications requires an accurate description of the time-dependent photon propagation in tissues. In many applications the diffusion approximation is used for this purpose. However, in case of a highly anisotropic scattering and in the vicinity of light sources the diffusion equation becomes inadequate. To overcome this limitation, we introduce another approximation of the time- dependent radiative transfer equation. The approximation is based on the assumption that the scattering phase function of the medium is strongly forward-peaked, which has been established for a variety of tissues. We show that in this case, the integro-differential time-dependent transfer equation can be reduced to a partial differential equation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this approximate equation is valid at much shorter distances from the source than the diffusion equation. At the same time, this approach is amenable for a combination with an inverse technique in order to determine the optical properties of the medium from a time- or frequency-resolved experiment.
The laser-induced interstitial thermo-therapy of brain tumors requires an exact therapy planning. Therefore, the knowledge of the optical properties of native (na) and coagulated (co) tissue structures is important. In this study the optical properties of native and thermally coagulated (2 h, 80 degree Celsius) human white (n equals 14; na equals 7, co equals 7) and gray matter (n equals 14; na equals 7, co equals 7) were investigated (spectral range equals 360 - 1100 nm, spectral resolution 20 nm) in vitro using the integrating sphere technique combined with the inverse Monte-Carlo method. The (mu) a of the native gray matter decreased from 0.333 plus or minus 0.219/mm (360 nm) to 0.054 plus or minus 0.069/mm (1100 nm). The (mu) s varied between 14.13 plus or minus 4.26/mm (360 nm) and 5.53 plus or minus 1.80/mm (1100 nm). The g-value increased from 0.818 plus or minus 0.093 (360 nm) to 0.904 plus or minus 0.051 (1100 nm). Coagulation increased (mu) a and (mu) s by a factor up to 3 and g up to 16%. White matter exhibited a (mu) a between 0.253 plus or minus 0.055/mm (360 nm) and 0.100 plus or minus 0.052/mm (1100 nm) and a (mu) s between 40.20 plus or minus 9.18/mm (360 nm) and 28.65 plus or minus 6.83/mm (1100 nm). The g-value varied between 0.702 plus or minus 0.093 (360 nm) and 0.886 plus or minus 0.012 (1100 nm). Coagulation increased (mu) a up to a factor of three and the g-value up to 14% while the increase (approximately 1.25 fold) of (mu) s was not significant. We conclude the optical properties of human brain tissue change significantly due to thermal denaturation.
We investigated the impact of the scattering phase function approximation on the optical properties of whole human blood determined from integrating sphere measurements using an inverse Monte Carlo technique. The diffuse reflectance Rd and the total transmittance Tt ((lambda) equals 633nm) of the whole blood samples were measured with a double integrating sphere equipment. The experimental scattering phase functions of the highly diluted blood samples were measured with a goniophotometer. We approximated the experimental scattering phase function with Mie, Gegenbauer kernel (GKPF), and Henyey-Green (HGPF) phase functions to pre-set the anisotropy factor (mu) for the inverse problem. We have employed HGPF, GKPF, and MPF approximations in the inverse Monte Carlo procedure to derive the absorption coefficient (mu) a and the scattering coefficient (mu) s. The results show significant difference in the final estimates of (mu) s. 12
We determine the optical properties of whole blood samples in the near infrared spectral range from double integrating sphere measurements using an inverse Monte Carlo technique. The measured values included the diffuse reflectance, the total transmittance, and the collimated transmittance. From these data, the absorption coefficient, the scattering coefficient, and the anisotropy factor were derived. The spectral range investigated extended from 700 nm to 1200 nm. It was found that the optical properties of blood were substantially different from the respective data for other relevant human tissues known so far. In addition, we analyzed the effect of the scattering phase function approximation on the resulting estimates of the optical properties. The Henyev-Greenstein and the Gegenbauer kernel phase functions were considered. The calculated angular distributions of scattered light were compared with goniophotometric measurements performed at the wavelength of 633 nm. The data presented in this study prove that the variations of the employed scattering phase function approximation can cause large discrepancies in the derived optical properties. This leads to the conclusion that the exact knowledge of the scattering phase function is required for the precise determination of the optical constants from the double integrating sphere measurements.
The accurate prediction of the temperature and damage distribution, respectively, is a prerequisite for the successful application of the laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy of brain tumors. For the precise calculation of the resulting damage, the exact structure of the tissue in the region of interest has to be taken into account. We used the MR images of the respective brain tumor as the starting point for the computation of the light, the heat, and the consecutive damage distribution within the individual tissue structures selected for treatment. The simulation technique is based on the combination of the Monte Carlo method to calculate the light distribution and a finite difference alternative directions implicit scheme to solve the heat transfer equation. The model accounts for the specific geometry of the applicator, the changes of the optical and thermal tissue properties during the heating process, and the blood perfusion. The boundary conditions are determined by the thermal exchange between the tissue, the applicator, and the ambient medium. The predictions of the model were compared with the MR image of the resulting laser lesion induced in a patient. The relative error in the determination of the size of the damage area was found to be within 10 per cent in the direction of the applicator axis and within 20 per cent in the radial direction.
The time-dependent equation of the radiative transport is reduced to the stationary one for the case of a radiation source being modulated by a harmonic frequency. A Monte Carlo scheme is suggested to solve the resulting equation. The technique avoids tracking the time-histories of each individual photon and allows us to take the finite single-scattering transient time into account. The algorithm directly estimates the quantities being relevant to frequency-domain measurements. A single set of photon trajectories can be used to compute the modulation and the phase of the scattered radiation at different modulation frequencies. The results of the Monte Carlo simulations are compared to predictions of the rigorous radiative transport theory and the diffusion approximation. It is found that the Monte Carlo technique provides a good agreement with the transport theory whereas the accuracy of the diffusion approximation decreases with growth of the modulation frequency. In addition, the technique is used to study the effect of the finite single-scattering transient time on the resulting modulation and phase distribution of the diffusely reflected radiation. It is shown that even a transient time as short at 0.1 ps can significantly affect the reflected signal from a medium presenting optical properties similar to those of biological tissues in the near-infrared spectral range.
Porcine brain tissue is a model for human brain structures in laser induced thermo-therapy. However, its optical properties including possible heat-related changes were basically unknown so far. To simulate laser coagulation, 12 specimens (6 grey and 6 white matter) were heated in a saline bath (80°C, 2 hours) and compared to 11 untreated samples (5 grey and 6 white matter). The optical constants were obtained from transmission (total and collimated) and reflection (diffuse) measurements using the inverse Monte-Carlo method. The absorption coefficient ((mu) a) of untreated grey substance decreased from 0.35 +/- 0.06/mm (340 nm) to 0.03 +/- 0.02/mm (800 nm). The scattering coefficient ((mu) s) varied between 20.42 +/- 3.65/mm (340 nm) and 6.85 +/- 2.07/mm (800 nm). The anisotropy factor (g) increased from 0.848 +/- 0.013 (340 nm) to 0.889 +/- 0.009 (800 nm). Coagulation increased (mu) a up to a factor of 2 (340-540 nm; p < 0.05), and (mu) s by a factor up to 3 (340-800 nm, all data p < 0.001) while g was decreased up to 18% (340-560 nm; p < 0.05). White substance exhibited a (mu) a between 0.24 +/- 0.07/mm (340 nm) and 0.04 +/- 0.02/mm (800 nm) while (mu) s varied between 26.72 +/- 9.10/mm (340 nm) and 21.78 +/- 3.88/mm (800 nm). The g-value increased from 0.561 +/- 0.180 (340 nm) to 0.834 +/- 0.068 (800 nm). Coagulation increased (mu) a by a factor up to 2 (340-800 nm; all data p < 0.05) while (mu) s and g remained unchanged. Thermal denaturation changes the absorption and scattering properties of porcine brain significantly.
Technology for human epidermis optical parameters determination is described. This technology includes: (1) epidermis upper layers glue stripping; (2) in vitro measurements of total transmission, diffuse reflection, and angular light scattering of strippings; (3) absorption and scattering coefficients reconstruction using inverse calculating technique based on 4-flux approximation of radiation transport theory or inverse Monte Carlo simulation method. Epidermis stripping autofluorescence spectra were acquired under different excitation wavelengths: dependence of sample autofluorescence on some external factors was followed.
In this work, we present a comparison of two approaches (the rigorous transfer equation and its diffusion approximation) to describe the frequency dependence of the modulation and the phase shift of scattered light for the problem of diffuse reflection form a semi-infinite medium with isotropic scattering. It is shown that both approaches lead to the same results, when the modulation frequency of the incident light is low with respect to the inverse time-of-flight between two interaction sites. At increased frequencies, however, these two models reveal differences in their predictions. Besides, the diffusion approximation fails even qualitatively to describe angular dependence of the modulation and the phase shift of back scattered radiation. The photon migration process in tissue is also influenced by the finite (non-zero) life-time of photons in the virtually absorbed state during the scattering process. Most of the existing models assume that this life-time is neglectably short. However, in dense scattering media, like in most biological tissues, this time can be comparable with the time-of-flight between two interaction sites. We also investigated this effect on the frequency dependence of the modulation and the phase shift. The results let us conclude that both -- the diffusion approximation and the assumption of short life-times in the virtually absorbed state -- should be applied with caution when using frequency domain data to determine optical properties of biological tissues especially when using high modulation frequencies. This is also true for the application of this technique in optical tomography.
Optical properties of blood are identified by physiological ones. That's why two groups of parameters of whole blood have been investigated simultaneously (on the same sample and in the same time). The set up which allows us to register diffuse reflectance and transmissions of whole blood with hyperfine flow layers (less than 100 microns) has been created. Receiving hyperfine layers of whole blood which is compatible with capillar aperture gives us a chance to obtain experimental data in a wider spectral range with higher accuracy.
Various frequency-domain and quasi-elastic scattering methods and techniques which are prospective for biological tissues spectroscopy and imaging are discussed. Methods under investigation are characterized by the wide frequency range of diffusing light intensity modulation from Hertz up to gigahertz, by harmonic or random light intensity modulation produced by light source modulators, tissue movements, and light beam scanning.
A model of multilayered tissue is considered. The Monte Carlo simulation technique is used to study laser beam transport through tissues with varying optical properties for each layer (absorption, scattering, scattering anisotropy factor, and refractive index). Calculations are performed for some models of the human skin and adjacent tissues for visible and UV wavelength ranges. New technology for human epidermis optical parameters determination is presented. This technology includes epidermis upper layers glue stripping; in vitro measurements of total transmission, diffuse reflection, and angular scattering of stripping samples; and using an inverse calculation technique based on four-flux approximation of radiation transport theory. The technology was successfully used for depth dependence monitoring of epidermis optical parameters. An inverse Monte Carlo technique for determining the optical properties of tissues based on spectrophotometric measurements is developed. This technique takes into account the 2-D geometry of the experiment, finite sizes of incident beam and integrating sphere ports, boundary conditions, and sideways losses of light.
Absence of satisfactory criteria for discrete model parameters choice during computer modeling of thermal processes of laser-biotissue interaction may be the premier sign for accuracy of numerical results obtained. The approach realizing the new concept of direct automatical adaptive grid construction is suggested. The intellectual program provides high calculation accuracy and is simple in practical usage so that a physician receives the ability to prescribe treatment without any assistance of a specialist in mathematical modeling. The real possibility of controlling of the hyperthermia processes exists: the changes of hyperthermia region volume, of its depth and of the temperature levels are possible by means of changing of free convection boundary conditions on the tissue outer surface, of the power, the radius and the shape of laser beam.
An inverse Monte Carlo technique for determination of optical properties of tissues (absorption coefficient, scattering coefficient and anisotropy factor) from spectrophotometric measurements (total transmittance, diffuse reflectance and collimated transmittance) is developed. This technique enables to take into account 2D-geometry of experiment, finite sizes of incident beam and ports of integrating sphere, boundary conditions and sideway losses of light. We performed comparison of inverse Monte Carlo results with predictions of the Kubelka-Munk theory for model media, so estimating validity area of the Kubelka-Munk theory for spectrophotometric data processing. Value of the sideway losses for model media has been evaluated. An example of use of the inverse Monte Carlo technique for tissue properties determination is presented.
Elastic light scattering and Raman light scattering applied to the same eye-lens have been used, respectively, to extract information on the spatial variations in the intensity of scattered light and the protein content. A combination of the results allows one to obtain the distribution of the scattering coefficient, the size of the scattering particles and the molecular weight of the scattering particles. The design of the light scattering set up is such that the results can be compared with those obtained with a `Scheimpflug' camera. The increase in light scattering at the anterior and posterior cortex in young (< 20 - 30 yrs.) eye-lenses is in accordance with the theory for short-range crystalline order in eye-lenses.
This paper presents the version of a Monte Carlo method for simulating of optical radiation propagation in biotissue and highly scattering media allowing for 3-D geometry of a medium and macroinhomogeneities located in one of the layers. The simulation is based on the use of Green's function of medium response to a single external pulse. The process of radiation propagation is studied in the area with given boundary conditions, taking into account the processes of reflection and refraction at the boundaries of layers in side the medium under study.
Determination of the optical parameters of tissues is a necessary element of laser medical diagnostics and therapy planning. In this work a mathematical model of the photon migration in tissues is considered in the assumption of the harmonic modulation of the incident laser light. The scattering coefficient and the photon's life time in virtually absorbed state can be calculated from the modulation coefficient and phase shift between incident and scattered light. Frequency-domain measurements were performed using two laser diodes (wavelengths 805 and 850 nm) as light-modulated sources and fiber-optic light guides for delivering the light to tissues surface and collecting the back scattering output. It is shown that measured difference in phase shift of scattered light intensity is proportional to difference in mean pathlength of photons at two wavelengths.
The physical processes of the skin hyperthermia accompanying the tissue irradiation by visible laser light is discussed. The numerical model based on the program complex SFEMA takes into account the physical heterogeneity and the absorption power density distribution, which was obtained by the Monte Carlo method. The temperature distribution to boundary condition and laser beam radius was researched. The possibility to obtain the needed temperature distribution was shown.
New technology for the definition of the skin epidermis optical parameters, which includes upper layers of epidermis stripping, diffuse reflection, transmission, and angular measurement of scattered light by stripping samples, calculations using 4-flux Kubelka-Munk approximation, have been obtained. This technology was successfully used for depth dependence monitoring of epidermis optical parameters, and for laser light dosimetry in percutaneous irradiation of blood and laser PUVA therapy.
A theoretical aspect of frequency domain measurements of tissue optical parameters is considered. In the framework of radiative transfer theory expressions have been obtained which describe dependence of modulation M and phase shift (Delta) (Phi) of scattered radiation on frequency. As an example, the results of processing of experimental data are presented.
Methods of theoretical description and experimental investigations of the optical characteristics of biotissues are presented. Propagation of focused and collimated laser beams in multilayer biotissues is described. Using the speckle-optics techniques pulse wave monitoring was realized. Techniques and devices for laser therapy with respect to laser light dosimetry in treatment of different diseases are presented.
The paper deals with analyzing the angular and spectral characteristics of repeatedly scattered radiation. Multiple scattering theory is used to study single light scattering on one spherical particle transformed to obtain intensity expression via the parameter of scattering particle immediately, without calculating the amplitudes.
Authors use a conventional parameter `Specific Power Density', Ps (mW/cm3) connected with both power characteristics of laser and optical properties of irradiated blood. This value is normalized intensity of laser emission in the irradiated blood volume. The suggested value of the `Specific Power Density' creates more reproductive and physically more correct understanding of parametrization of Intra-Venous Low Level Laser Therapy of blood.
In the present paper the method and apparatus for percutaneous laser irradiation of blood (PLIB) in vessels (veins) and for irradiation of not large skin tumors are described. The problems of laser light dosimetry by irradiation of tissues are discussed. Results of clinical investigations of biostimulating effects under PLIB by red laser light (633 nm) in Cubiti and Saphena Magna veins are presented.
The results of measurements of the optical parameters of the upper layers of human epidermis in UV wavelength range are presented. For making samples, the technique of skin surface strippings was used. For calculations of linear scattering and absorption coefficients, the Kubelka - Munk approximation was applied, taking into account the sample method. Use of skin surface strippings allows the transmission and diffuse reflection spectra of psoriatic epidermis.
The Monte Carlo method of statistical simulations was used to evaluate the effects of anisotropic scattering and refractive index mismatch at the boundaries of the medium on light and temperature distribution in the multilayered biotissues during laser irradiation. The influence of optical parameters of multilayered tissue on its stationary thermal response was examined by using an adaptive version of finite element solution of the heat conduction equation. Calculations were performed for two models of human skin and adjacent tissues for visible (five layer model) and UV (three layer model) ranges of wavelengths. The topic of this paper is especially pertinent to laser percutaneous irradiation of blood and laser PUVA therapy.
Intravascular and percutaneous irradiation of blood by low power light of He-Ne laser (wavelength 632.8 nm) is used for therapy of a wide range of diseases. Proof and optimization of photobiostimulation of human organism depends on the results of investigations in the following areas: (1) clarification of the physical and chemical mechanisms of biostimulation; (2) development of mathematical and physical methods of laser light dosimetry within tissues; and (3) accumulation of impartial clinical information. In the paper, a short survey of the hypotheses of red laser light biostimulating effect on blood is made, the problems of dosimetry during percutaneous laser treatment of blood are discussed and some results of clinical investigations are presented.
The justifaction of method of the laser PUVA (LPUVA) therapy, the description of an UVA therapeutic system, the preliminary results of using the nitrogen gas laser as an UVA source for LPUVA chamber and in some other fields of application in dermatology are given.
In order to optimize laser PUVA psoriasis treatment we develop the mathematical model of the dynamics of cell
processes within epidermis.
We consider epidermis as a structure consisting of N cell monolayers. There are four kinds of cells that correspond
to four epidermal strata. The different kinds of cells can exist within a given monolayer. We assume that the following
cell processes take place: division, death and transition from one stratum to the following. Discrete transition of cells
from stratum j to j + 1 approximates to real differentiation.
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