KEYWORDS: Sensors, Silicon, Metals, CMOS sensors, Optical filters, Signal to noise ratio, Ion implantation, Signal processing, Quantum efficiency, Signal detection
Back Side Illumination (BSI) CMOS image sensors with two-layer photo detectors (2LPDs) have been fabricated and evaluated. The test pixel array has green pixels (2.2um x 2.2um) and a magenta pixel (2.2um x 4.4um). The green pixel has a single-layer photo detector (1LPD). The magenta pixel has a 2LPD and a vertical charge transfer (VCT) path to contact a back side photo detector. The 2LPD and the VCT were implemented by high-energy ion implantation from the circuit side. Measured spectral response curves from the 2LPDs fitted well with those estimated based on light-absorption theory for Silicon detectors. Our measurement results show that the keys to realize the 2LPD in BSI are; (1) the reduction of crosstalk to the VCT from adjacent pixels and (2) controlling the backside photo detector thickness variance to reduce color signal variations.
KEYWORDS: Metals, Optical proximity correction, Back end of line, Diffractive optical elements, Photomasks, Logic, Resistance, Structural design, Scanning electron microscopy, Very large scale integration
With downscaling of dimensions, essential challenges on layout printability significantly increase. The design rule
cannot be shrunk with linearity any more. Historically, in the early development stage, simple test patterns like
snake/comb or border/borderless via chains were used for identifying design and process issues electrically. However
it is unclear how much these patterns represent the sensitive patterns for the real critical failures. The lack of these kinds
of critical patterns would always cause yield problems in the volume production. In this paper, we show the result of
evaluating 65-nm BEOL process by using the test patterns that can cover critical layout situations. Especially, it was
focused on the line end via hole, which is believed to cause the systematic yield degradation.
The key steps in our process/design decomposition methodology are design attribute and process space analysis. By
exploring the process space for a given design, the method allows to find the most challenging patterns to print due to
various process issues. The test patterns were generated from critical pattern extracted from standard cells library by
considering our preliminary opc and mask design flow. Simulation of all test patterns are performed to ensure that DOE
range is sufficient to cover the entire process/design space. These patterns are generated from the 65nm node ground
design rule. It used a size of 90nm as metal minimum width and space, and a size of 100nm for fixed via hole diameter.
It was confirmed by simulations that all the test pattern represent for the original design on each module process/design
space. All the test patterns were measured by the standard parametric e-test setup. The amount of line end pull back can
be inferred from the via resistance, and the amount of line end widening can be inferred from the leakage current
between via chains and neighboring lines. Thus the meaningful information about the OPC and litho process can be
obtained quickly without extensive use of SEM measurements.
More than 200 test patterns considering logic randomness were designed and fabricated by using 65-nm node BEOL
process. We found that 50nm or more line extension is necessary to suppress the pull back issue caused by the defocus
effect. To prevent the metal short of the isolated pattern next to or surrounding by the wide metal, the minimum space
with wide neighboring metal was defined. Using this methodology, our 65-nm design rule has been successfully
evaluated and optimized.
We have designed and synthesized a number of unique polymer systems composed of acrylate and styrene even though it had moderate transparency. Our first model of 157nm photoresist was based on a (alpha) trifluoromethylacrylate and styrene bearing a pendent hexafluoroisopropanol with pentafluoroisopropyl t-butyl carbonate (PFITBC) as the transparent enhancer and acid labile compound. PFITBC was obtained from perfluorinated enolate with di-t-butyl carbonate with high yield. All of the absorbance of our system ranged over 3.0~3.4micrometers -1 for base resin, which corresponded to a resist thickness of 110~125 nm at the optical density of 0.4. We have formulated several resists based on these polymers and these formulations have shown high resolution and contrast at 248 nm. We were able to obtain 240nm 1:1 image when exposed at 248 nm by a Nikon stepper with 0.45NA. To overcome the weak etch resistance with thin thickness film, we investigated the vapor phase silylation treatment (SILYAL) in which the treated pattern was more persistent against the O2 plasma and turned to smoother surface. DMSMDA with Bi(DMA)MS of 30-40 wt% showed not only good control resist flow but also the improvement of line-edge roughness. Our results suggested that a facile approach to fluorine incorporated resin with SILYAL process can accelerate the 157nm lithography.
The present paper describes a novel class of norbornene- based copolymers containing 7,7-dimethyloxepan-2-one acid labile groups. Poly(3-(bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2- ylhydroxymethyl)-7,7-dimethyloxepan-2-one-co-5-((2- decahydronaphth-yl)oxycarbonyl)-norbornene-co-5-norbornene- 2-carboxxylic acid-co-maleic anhydride) was synthesized and evaluated as a potential chemically amplified resist for ArF lithography. The 7,7-dimethyloxepan-2-one group of the matrix polymer was readily cleaved and the carboxylic acid functionality was formed by acid-catalyzed ring-opening reaction in the exposed region after post-exposure bake. 0.12micrometers line and space patterns were obtained at a dose of 10 mJ cm-2 with a conventional developer, 2.38 wt% tetramethylammonium hydroxide aqueous solution, using an ArF excimer laser stepper.
The present authors have studied a novel system of deep UV photoresist based on thermally crosslinkable photoacid generators(TCL-PAG), which have two or three crosslinking groups on the same molecule that can be crosslinked to a binder resin of chemically modified poly (p-hydroxystyrene), referred to as PHST hereinafter, in the stage of prebaking via the reaction of their phenolic hydroxyl groups on the polymer chain with the crosslinking groups of TCL-PAG. Upon exposure and subsequent PEB, the crosslinkage with acetal structures is cleaved by photogenerated acids to give an unprotected phenol resin, alcohol and acetaldehyde. We investigated some structural effects on resolution, photospeed, line edge roughness and other functional properties of the resulting resists with different size of the protecting groups in a combination with different types of PAGs and bases added. KrF steppers of Nikon (NA:0.45) and ASML(NA:0.7) were used in the lithographic test with binary test masks. Various types of partially protected PHST derivatives were synthesized with different protecting groups to control the dissolution rate and the activation energy of the base resins. The resist pattern quality can be enhanced by using our new PAG system based on the thermal crosslinking mechanism. A combination of the acetal and carbonate protecting groups onto the PHS base resin with the TCL-PAG can also enhance the resist performance so that a minimum resolution of 130 nm with KrF exposure could be obtained.
Hydrogen bonding between several novolak oligomers as donors and phenylsulfoxide as acceptor was investigated as a model for the interaction of inhibitors with o,o-connected phenolic blocks in practical novolak resins. It was found that the attraction of the novolak dimer for the acceptor was more than twice as strong as that of the corresponding monomeric phenol. In a non-polar solvent, carbon tetrachloride, the higher oligomers assume cyclic conformations where all hydrogen bonds are internally saturated. There are, however, indications, that in sufficiently polar solvents these cyclic structures open up and that the acyclic oligomers then interact strongly with hydrogen bond acceptors.
Poly (p-vinylphenol) was derivatized by reaction with ortho- methylolated precursors to introduce ortho-ortho linked phenolic diad and triad moieties onto the polyethylene backbone. In particular, the resulting polymers obtained by the reaction with 2,4-dimethyl-6-methylolphenol were characterized by spectroscopic and lithographic methods to understand the structure/property relationship. The reaction took place in a sequential fashion so that the diad formation was followed by the triad formation. The diad was found to have two conformations, corresponding to hydrogen-bonded and -unbonded states, while the triad existed only in the hydrogen-bonded conformation. The dissolution behavior of the modified polymers with and without DNQ ester was greatly affected by the degree of HMX incorporation. Optimized resist performance determined by dissolution rate monitoring was obtained on modification of all phenolic moieties with a diad/triad ratio of approximately 1.
The authors have investigated the dissolution of a series of novolac resins with different structures and properties with various quaternary ammonium hydroxides using a new technique called Spectroscopic Dissolution Rate Monitoring (SDRM). This technique allows direct spectral measurement of an absorption band attributed to cation complex formation. The rate of formation of this complex is used as an approximation or surrogate for cation diffusion. The rate of formation of the complex is approximately the same as the rate of dissolution when using a rinse. This evidence supports cation diffusion as the rate determining step even in TMAH development of high ortho, ortho bonded systems. Our studies also suggest that polymer flexibility and microstructure exert a strong influence on the cation diffusion rate.
It was suggested in an earlier communication that dissolution inhibition in phenolic resins comes about through the blocking of some of the hydrophilic OH-groups by a hydrophobic effect of the inhibitors. Honda et al. have shown that the hydrophobicity of the additive is not a sufficient condition, and that the polar groups of the inhibitor, such as the diazoquinone function, play an important role in the inhibition effect. They found that additives with very similar skeletal structures, but differing in the polar anchor group, have very different inhibition efficiencies in a common novolac resin. In this study we investigate the interaction between phenols and the anchor groups of the inhibitors by determining the equilibrium constants of their association reaction. From this, the fraction of bound acceptor groups (inhibitors) can be estimated for the casting solution of the films at the point of solidification. It can be shown that this fraction correlates quite satisfactorily with the inhibition effect of the additives used in Honda's study.
The dissolution behavior of films comprising novolak polymers and oligomers having defined structural characteristics has been investigated by means of near-real-time UV and FT-IR spectroscopic measurements. The observed results are correlated with the behavior of practical resists and the solution chemistry of related model compounds in order to provide a better understanding of the mechanism of dissolution inhibition with emphasis on `secondary' reactions occurring during the development process. In particular, evidence is presented for the formation of a stable TMA+/novolate- complex which may influence the dissolution inhibition dependency of the novolak microstructure.
A p-cresol trimer sequence was incorporated into a polymeric chain of novolak by copolymerization with m-cresol of a reactive precursor which was prepared by attaching two units of m-cresol to the terminal ortho positions of p-cresol trimer. The resulting novolak was characterized by 13C NMR and FTIR in an attempt to correlate novolak structure with dissolution inhibition function based on physicochemical analysis of molecular interactions between novolak and DNQ-PAC in solid films.
effects in the development process.
A comprehensive theory ofdissolution inhibition in novolak-DNQ (diazonaphthoquinone) resist is
proposed, which is based on experimental studies of novolak-PAC (photoactive compound) interactions and the
relationship between novolak microstructres and dissolution inhibition. The theory invokes a "two-step
mechanism". Static molecular interactions between novolak and DNQ are augmented by secondary dynamic
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