Battery packs are a critical component in electric vehicles. During pack assembly, the battery cell tab and busbar are ultrasonically welded. The properties of the welds ultimately affect battery pack durability. Quality inspection of these welds is important to ensure durable battery packs. Pack failure is detrimental economically and could also pose a safety hazard, such as thermal runaway. Ultrasonic welds are commonly checked by measuring electrical resistance or auditing using destructive mechanical testing. Resistance measurements are quick, but sensitive to set-up changes. Destructive testing cannot represent the entire weld set. It is possible for a weak weld to satisfy the electrical requirement check, because only sufficient contact between the tabs and busbar is required to yield a low resistance measurement. Laboratory techniques are often not suitable for inline inspection, as they may be time-consuming, use couplant, or are only suitable for coupons. The complex surface geometry also poses difficulties for conventional nondestructive techniques. A method for inspection of ultrasonic welds is proposed using pulsed infrared thermography to identify discrepant welds in a manufacturing environment. Thermal measurements of welds were compared to electrical and mechanical measurements. The heat source distribution was calculated to obtain thermal images with high temporal and spatial resolution. All discrepant welds were readily identifiable using two thermographic techniques: pixel counting and the gradient image. A positive relationship between pixel count and mechanical strength was observed. The results demonstrate the potential of pulsed thermography for inline inspection, which can complement, or even replace, conventional electrical resistance measurements.
A nondestructive testing approach capable of evaluating high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) damage in carbon steel pressure vessels is presented. The approach, involving non-collinear wave mixing of ultrasonic waves, is applied to a test sample extracted from a retired pressure vessel. Nonlinear ultrasonic results are consistent with tensile test results obtained using specimens extracted throughout the thickness of the pressure vessel, and with damage observed using scanning electron microscopy micrographs. Results show that the nonlinear ultrasonic approach has the potential of being capable to detect and assess HTHA damage through the thickness of pressure vessels. The method only requires access to the vessels’ outside surface, which makes it very attractive for field inspections.
The efficacy of asphalt rejuvenator on restoring the properties of oxidatively aged asphalt was tested via a non-collinear ultrasonic subsurface wave mixing technique modified for field use. Longitudinal transducers were mounted on angle wedges to generate subsurface dilatational waves to allow for pavement evaluation when there is only access to one side. Because in the field the asphalt concrete (AC) pavement properties (i.e., ultrasonic velocities and attenuations) are unknown, a pre-determined fixed incident angle (based on the AC mixture type) was used, which allows for practical implementation in the field. Oxidative aged AC specimens were coated with rejuvenator (10% by weight of the binder) and left to dwell for varying amounts of time. Once the dwell time reached the desired amount, the specimen was immediately ultrasonically tested. The frequency ratio, f2/f1, at which the interaction took place and the normalized nonlinear wave generation parameter, β/β0, were recorded and compared against a reference plot. It was observed that the rejuvenator had the effect of restoring the nonlinear properties to those corresponding to a virgin sample after a sufficient amount of dwell time. The ability of the rejuvenator to fully penetrate and act on the binder was observed to be dependent on the porosity and aggregate structure, and thus varied for each specimen. As a result, some portions of the binder were restored to a greater extent than others. This non-uniform nature was captured via the nonlinear ultrasonic technique.
A method capable of characterizing artificial weathering damage in dimension stone cladding using access to one side only is presented. Dolomitic limestone test samples with increasing levels of damage were created artificially by exposing undamaged samples to increasing temperature levels of 100°C, 200°C, 300°C, 400°C, 500°C, 600°C, and 700°C for a 90 min period of time. Using access to one side only, these test samples were nondestructively evaluated using a nonlinear approach based upon noncollinear wave mixing, which involves mixing two critically refracted dilatational ultrasonic waves. Criteria were used to assure that the detected scattered wave originated via wave interaction in the limestone and not from nonlinearities in the testing equipment. Bending tests were used to evaluate the flexure strength of beam samples extracted from the artificially weathered samples. It was observed that the percentage of strength reduction is linearly correlated (R2=98) with the temperature to which the specimens were exposed; it was noted that samples exposed to 400°C and 600°C had a strength reduction of 60% and 90%, respectively. It was also observed that results from the noncollinear wave mixing approach correlated well (R2=0.98) with the destructively obtained percentage of strength reduction.
KEYWORDS: Waveguides, Reflection, Ultrasonics, Temperature metrology, Transducers, Protactinium, Wave propagation, Solids, Signal generators, Signal attenuation
A pulse-echo ultrasonic guided wave approach capable of monitoring the viscosity of asphalt binders as function of temperature is presented. The method consists of sending a torsional wave from one end of a cylindrical steel rod embedded in asphalt binder and receiving the reflected signals. Experiments were performed on several binders of different performance grades, at temperatures ranging from 25 to 1800C. First, the viscosity of the binders was measured using a rotational viscometer in accordance with ASTM standards. The change in signal strength of the end-of-waveguide reflection of the guided wave was also monitored for the same binders over the same range of temperatures. It was observed that the values obtained using the guided wave approach correlates well with the viscosity values obtained using the rotational viscometer. The method also appears capable of monitoring changes in viscosity due to aging of the binders. The method has the advantage of having no moving parts, which makes it attractive for the development of a system that is capable of monitoring viscosity in asphalt binders in the asphalt industry. Industrial applications examples are briefly summarized.
Characterization of dolomitic limestone rock samples with increasing levels of damage is presented using linear and nonlinear ultrasonic approaches. Limestone test samples with increasing levels of damage were created artificially by exposing virgin samples to increasing temperature levels of 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700oC for a ninety minute period of time. The linear characterization is based upon the concept of complex moduli, which is estimated using ultrasonic dilatational and shear phase velocity measurements and corresponding attenuations. The nonlinear approach is based upon non-collinear wave mixing, involving mixing of two dilatational waves. Criteria were used to assure that the detected scattered wave originated via wave interaction in the limestone and not from nonlinearities in the testing equipment. These criteria included frequency and propagating direction of the resultant scattered wave, and the time-of-flight separation between the two primary waves and the resulting scattered wave. It was observed that both the linear and nonlinear approaches are able to characterize the level of damage in limestone rock.
Asphalt concrete mixtures with different levels of oxidative aging, prepared by oven-aging the mixture at 135 °C for
different amounts of time, were used to study the effects of oxidative aging upon the ultrasonic phase velocities and
attenuation measurements. It was a observed that both the dilatational and shear velocities increase up to approximately
24 hours of aging after which they significantly decease with aging. Also, both the dilatational and shear attenuation
decrease up to around 24 hours of aging, after which both attenuations strongly increase. These results are consistent
with results obtained using the mechanical Disk-shaped Compact Tension (DC[T]) fracture tests. Based upon these
velocity and attenuation measurements, the dynamic moduli were calculated. It was observed that the dynamic moduli
increase from 0 hours to 24 hours and decrease from 24 to 36 hours of oven-aging. The modulus obtained using
ultrasonic measurements is also compared with the modulus obtained using the AASHTO recommended mechanical
testing. The differences are due to scattering effects, which are present in ultrasonic testing. It was also observed that to
avoid the uncertainty associated with assuming a suitable value for the Poisson’s ratio, both the dilatational and shear
velocities and corresponding attenuation measurements must be carried out. Furthermore, to eliminate the need for
traditional mechanical testing during estimation of complex moduli, frequency-dependent ultrasonic measurements must
also be carried out.
Characterization of dolomitic limestone rock is presented using linear and nonlinear ultrasonic approaches. The
linear approach is based upon the concept of complex moduli, which is estimated using ultrasonic dilatational and
shear phase velocity measurements and the corresponding attenuations. The nonlinear approach is based upon noncollinear
wave mixing, involving mixing of two dilatational waves. Criteria were used to assure that the detected
scattered wave originated via wave interaction in the limestone and not from nonlinearities in the testing equipment.
These criteria included frequency and propagating direction of the resultant scattered wave, and the time-of-flight
separation between the two primary waves and the resulting scattered wave. Three cases of non-collinear interaction
of two longitudinal waves are presented and discussed including one that requires only access to a plane surface of
the stone test sample.
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) wood cube specimens were exposed to Gloeophyllum fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum) for
increasing periods of time ranging from one week to twelve weeks. The corresponding mass of each of these specimens
was recorded before and after they were subjected to the controlled decay. Using X-ray computed tomography (CT) the
specimens' corresponding mass loss due to decay and corresponding densities were calculated. For each of the three
principal material directions of these specimens with controlled decay, ultrasonic longitudinal and (polarized) shear
velocity measurements along with the corresponding attenuation measurements are presented. The measurements were
carried out using longitudinal and shear ultrasonic transducers with a center frequency of 100 kHz. A steel delay line
was used because of the relative small size of the wooden specimens relative to the used wavelengths. Waveform
averaging was used along with the phase-slope method to measure velocities. It was observed that the velocities
increase with increasing frequency and decrease with increasing amount of decay, while the corresponding attenuations
increase with increasing frequency and with amount of decay.
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) wood cube specimens were exposed to Gloeophyllum fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum) for
increasing periods of time ranging from one week to twelve weeks. The corresponding mass of each of these specimens
was recorded before and after they were subjected to the controlled decay. X-ray computed tomography (CT) was then
carried out. From the CT scans and recorded mass data, the specimens' corresponding volumes and densities were
calculated. Blocks decayed for twelve weeks experienced, on the average, the greatest loss of mass (≈40%), volume
(≈30%), and density (≈37%). The observations quantified the well-known effect of non-uniform decay, with the greatest
occurring at the surface in contact with the fungi and decreasing to the opposite surface. Wood blocks subjected to
controlled decay for twelve weeks lost 47% of density at the surface in contact with the fungi and 28% at the opposite
surface, while blocks subjected to only one week of decay experienced over 5% density loss at the surface in contact
with fungi and nearly 0% at the opposite surface. While the mass loss of specimens exposed to only one week of
controlled decay was difficult to evaluate because of initial moisture absorption, these results indicate that x-ray CT can
detect decay in wood specimens exposed to only one week of controlled decay using density measurements.
A glulam beam retired from the field and without visible indications of wood decay was used. Towards detection and
assessing wood decay, X-ray computer tomography and ultrasonic measurements were carried out. It was observed that
decrease in mass density with increasing levels of wood decay affects x-rays attenuation and allows radioscopy to detect
and assess wood decay. To detect and assess decay when only one lateral side of the beam is available, a modified
impulse-echo was developed. The modified impulse-echo approach is based on observing the dynamic response of the
glulam beams to the drop of a steel sphere onto a steel plate coupled to the glulam beam lamina. It was observed that
monitoring certain frequency bands allows detection and assessment of wood decay. The selection of these frequency
bands requires knowledge of the nominal beam transverse dimensions. Because of the high ultrasonic material
attenuation values of decayed wood as compared with those of sound wood, the area under the power spectral density in
these frequency bands is smaller in regions of decayed wood. Results show that results from both X-ray computer
tomography and impulse-echo measurements are consistent with each other and can be used to detect and assess wood
decay in structural lumber.
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