The most common application of optical Y-splitters is their use in FTTx networks. It allows several customers to share the same physical medium, bringing high-speed networking, digital television and telephone services to residences using fiber-optic cables. The task of the optical splitters in such FTTH networks is to split one optical signal in many identical signals bringing for example the same TV signal in different households. Of course, the more buildings can be served by one optical splitter the lower are the installation costs. Therefore, the special attention is paid mainly to the design of high channel optical splitters presenting the serious challenge for the professional designers. In this paper a new Y-branch shape is proposed for 1×32 Y-branch splitter ensuring better splitting properties compared to the one recommended by ITU, in terms of their performance in transmission systems using wavelength division multiplexing.
The paper discuss about accelerated ageing of optical fiber elements in their burdened with gamma radiation. In addition to the destruction of coating materials, gamma radiation has its effect on the internal structure of the optical fiber. It is necessary to specify the changes in the optical coupler and find out why these changes occur.
This article contains experimental measurement of the impact of gamma radiation Cobalt-60 on the optical couplers of various split performance ratio. The couplers were exposed to gradually increasing doses of 60Co. Measurements are focused on the overall distribution of the energy in the core and cladding various branches of SM optical fiber couplers. This article focuses on applied research and experimental development of resources for safety operation of optical networks since monitoring of ageing substantially contributes to its security. It addresses issues of accelerated ageing of optical fiber elements in their burdened with gamma radiation. How does radiation energy of gamma radiation influence optical network elements? This effect is explored just very little bit and is yet another unanswered question. In addition to the destruction of coating materials, gamma radiation has its effect on the internal structure of the optical fiber. It is necessary to specify the changes in the optical coupler and find out why these changes occur. This article contains experimental measurement of the impact of gamma radiation Cobalt-60 on the optical couplers of various split performance ratio. Optical passive components, couplers, were exposed to gradually increasing doses of 60Co. Measurements are focused on the overall distribution of the energy of LP01 mode in the core and cladding various branches of SM optical fiber couplers. Graphical and mathematical detect changes in the dissemination of energy coupler after single doses of gamma radiation are useful to understand the phenomenon of accelerated ageing elements of optical networks in environments with an increased incidence of radiation energy. Keywords: 2-D view, 3-D view, coupler, gamma radiation, Cobalt-60, ageing, energy
AlGaN/GaN based high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs), Schottky diodes and/or resistors have been presented as sensing devices for mechanical or chemical sensors operating in extreme conditions. In addition we investigate ferroelectric thin films for integration into micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS). Creation of appropriate diaphragms and/or cantilevers out of SiC is necessary for further improvement of sensing properties of such MEMS sensors. For example sensitivity of the AlGaN/GaN based MEMS pressure sensor can be modified by membrane thickness. We demonstrated that a 4H-SiC 80μm thick diaphragms can be fabricated much faster with laser ablation than by electrochemical, photochemical or reactive ion etching (RIE). We were able to verify the feasibility of this process by fabrication of micromechanical membrane structures also in bulk 3C-SiC, borosilicate glass, sapphire and Al2O3 ceramic substrates by femtosecond laser (520nm) ablation. On a 350μm thick 4H-SiC substrate we produced an array of 275μm deep and 1000μm to 3000μm of diameter blind holes without damaging the 2μm AlN layer at the back side. In addition we investigated ferroelectric thin films as they can be deposited and micro-patterned by a direct UV-lithography method after the ablation process for a specific membrane design. The risk to harm or damage the function of thin films was eliminated by that means. Some defects in the ablated membranes are also affected by the polarisation of the laser light. Ripple structures oriented perpendicular to the laser polarisation promote creation of pin holes which would perforate a thin membrane. We developed an ablation technique strongly inhibiting formation of ripples and pin poles.
Optical fibres are widely used in various applications as a medium for optical signals or optical transfer. This transport can be realized on long distance, compared to free space optics, which significantly extends reach of applications. Free space optics and fibre optics are combined in practice to yield the maximum performance of individual components forming a particular system. In such cases, light coupling from free space into fibres is required and it is frequently implemented with the use of lenses. An optical signal coupled into a fibre may also need certain modifications of spectral and spatial properties to allow its propagation down the fibre or reduce the amount of power carried in. The above requirement has been fulfilled by modifying surface of facets of photonic crystal fibres. By extrusion of a certain amount of host material from the surface, it is possible to obtain a structure resembling a thin film or an opaque layer for certain wavelengths. Several different structures of photonic crystal fibres and materials are considered to show influence of such thin-film on signal properties. This investigation is carried out in context of abilities of ablation of material from surfaces of photonic crystal fibres. Only certain shapes and geometrical arrangements can be considered. One of the goals is to specify, which of them are key for potential modification of spectral characteristics of photonic crystal fibres. The printed structures could potentially work like a thin-film ablation. Rigorous and versatile finite difference method has been employed to model propagation of light, its incidence onto a surface of the photonic crystal fibre, and subsequent propagation down the fibre. The simulations are carried on small pieces of photonic crystal fibres, with the length of tens of micrometres, due to well-known demands of the simulation technique on computational resources. Nevertheless, such a simplification is valid, since the structure is longitudinally uniform beyond the thin-film layer. However, this is aspect is not covered in the presented paper and it is our ongoing effort. Finally, the goal is to verify if the investigated structures can work as a slot waveguide.
During recent years, there has been rapid development in optical networks. This includes not only fiber optical networks but also free space optical networks. The free space optical networks can be divided into indoor and outdoor ones. The indoor free space optical networks have been experiencing dramatic progress in the last years, allowed by the newest IEEE norm 802.15.7, which enabled development of different types of transmitter receivers, modulation formats, etc. The team of authors is dealing with software design of segment optical transmitters for an indoor free space optical network based on the multi-mode optical 50/125 or 62.5/125 μm fiber. Simulated data are then evaluated from the point of view of optical intensity uniform distribution and space spot light size radiating from segment optical transmitter.
The generally accepted view is that photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) with a small effective mode area allow the control of chromatic dispersion in the near-infrared region. For this purpose, a silica index guiding PCF with hexagonal cladding is investigated to find its dispersion limitation. In addition, chromatic dispersion is entirely controlled by only three structural parameters; the influence of each structural parameter is examined and described in detail. Understanding the mechanism governing chromatic dispersion is necessary not only for the fiber design and dispersion tailoring, but also to predict the potential manufacturing tolerances. In spite of the fact that the fiber with specific parameters matches its relative dispersion slope to that of standard single-mode fibers over a large range of operating wavelengths, the negative dispersion parameter is not higher than those in commercially available dispersion-compensating fibers. Therefore, the fiber parameters are modified to find the balance between the operating bandwidth and the high negative dispersion parameter. The limit value for the dispersion parameter is found to be −1600 ps·nm−1·km−1 at 1550 nm, where the dispersion slope is achieved for the 120-nm wide band. We predict that the negative dispersion parameter cannot be higher in small effective mode area PCFs operating over a bandwidth larger than the one considered here. The results are calculated by the full-vectorial finite difference frequency domain method. The simulation model is verified by convergence testing.
Knowing a thermal expansion coefficient and measured exact thermal expansion, it is possible to design a very sensitive sensor measuring temperature differential. A Michelson interferometer is used to determine temperature changes. It measures linear expansion on a metal object, e.g. a copper rod, as a change in length in response to a change in temperature. Based on the obtained interferograms and knowing the value of thermal expansion coefficient, temperature differential can be calculated. The accuracy of the procedure can be determined by using the exact differential method based on the measurement errors for linear expansion, and initial length. The contribution of this paper is the employment of Michelson interferometer to design a very sensitive differential thermometer measuring with the accuracy of one thousandth degree Celsius. It results from the achieved precision of measuring the optical path length changes in the range of hundreds nanometers. The advantage of this sensor is its precision and noncontact procedure.
Nonlinear photonic crystal fibers with small effective mode area allow to control chromatic dispersion in the near-infrared region. In this paper the chromatic dispersion is controlled entirely by structural parameters and the influence of each structural parameter is examined and described in detail. Understanding of the influence not only permits fiber design and dispersion tailoring, but also predicts the potential manufacturing tolerances. As a consequence, the fiber structural parameters are modified to found the balance between the operating bandwidth and the high negative dispersion parameter. We found that the limit value for the dispersion parameter is of about −1600 ps•nm-1•km-1 at 1550 nm whereas the desired dispersion slope is achieved over the 120 nm wide band. We predict that the negative dispersion parameter cannot be higher in the small effective mode area photonic crystal fibers operating over the bandwidth larger than the one considered in our paper. The results are calculated by the full-vectorial finite difference frequency domain method.
In this paper we investigate limits of intensity and phase modulation formats used in optical communications. Non- Return to Zero, Return to Zero, Chirped Return to Zero, Carrier-Suppressed Return to Zero, Binary Phase Shift Keying, and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying including the most actual solutions, such as Polarization Division Multiplexing Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying, are investigated in terms of spectral efficiency, Bit Error Rate to find the limits for selected topologies and spectral grids in Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing. Differential Phase-Shift Keying and mainly Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying offer improvements in Bit Error Rate and transmission reach, among others. There are practical conclusions about transition from 10 Gb•s-1 to much higher bit rates. We study the potential increase of efficiency of Wavelength Division Multiplexing. We investigate the performance of Polarization Division Multiplexing Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying in very high speed optical systems that are promising even for terabit transmission.
The goal of this paper is to investigate selected fluoride optical materials and to present a photonic crystal fiber designed for specific applications in dispersion compensation by using those materials. The idea how to restrict chromatic dispersion is to increase the index contrast by using calcium fluoride or barium fluoride in the first ring of holes, which lower the effective index. In general, fluoride materials compared to standard silica glass in many aspects offer better mechanical and optical properties. The use of fluorides allows achieving broadband dispersion suppression impossible to achieve in standard fibers with similar geometry. The presented result comprises a numerical model of a photonic crystal fiber in a submicron lattice, specific for its negative dispersion coefficient achieved for broad spectrum of telecommunication wavelengths, i.e. 1300 – 1700 nm. The core consists of pure silica surrounded by three doped regions and three air-holes. Holes doped with fluoride materials enhance negative dispersion coefficient to -438 ps.nm-1.km-1. The diameter of doped regions is about 1 micrometer. Simulations were done by using the full-vector FDFD method. The wavelength evolution of refractive index of materials was introduced by using the Sellmeier approximation. The major advantage of the designed fibers is their material composition, low attenuation and broadband utilization.
A novel photonic crystal fiber for compression of optical pulses is designed and studied in this paper. The fiber comprises a silica core surrounded by nine rings of air-holes, where air-hole diameter of the innermost ring is gradually reduced along the entire fiber length. In order to obtain the required wavelength dependence of the effective refractive index, finite difference frequency domain method is employed. The calculated chromatic dispersion is flat from 1250 to 1700 nm at the fiber output, and therefore the photonic crystal fiber can be used at a desired wavelength in this range. On the contrary to other studies, chromatic dispersion in this paper is decreasing along the fiber length with the effective mode area. Therefore, during the propagation of solitary waves, the fiber nonlinear parameter increases and consequently the compression ratio is increased. Compression of solitary waves is investigated at the wavelengths of 1250, 1310, 1400, 1550, and 1700 nm. The compression ratio up to 30 for the first-order solitary wave with the length of 1550 nm can be achieved primarily by dispersion varied from 137 to 6 ps·nm-1·km-1 during the wave propagation.
A novel design of a photonic crystal fiber is presented. A nearly zero dispersion regime of operation has been achieved by using a three-fold symmetry core, which is improved by the avoidance of high-index doping in a central region. The core consists of pure silica surrounded by three fluorine-doped regions and three airholes. It can be confirmed by the numerical simulations using the finite difference frequency domain method that flattened dispersion characteristics upon wavelength over the range of 1250 to 1700 nm can be achieved in an optical fiber. Further, the potential fiber geometry imperfections caused some concern. Finally, the presented fiber design is compared to selected fiber designs with a dispersion close to zero.
A new type of dispersion flattened photonic fiber is presented. The fiber has an improved threefold symmetry core that
consists of a silica core surrounded by three low-index regions and three air-holes. It can be observed from numerical
simulation employing the full-vectorial finite difference frequency domain method that nearly-zero ultra-flattened
dispersion can be obtained over the wavelength range of 1250-1700 nm. All fiber's parameters are found
to be non-immune to imperfections of geometry. An attention should though be paid to the potential fabrication process.
The chromatic dispersion behavior with fabrication tolerances of 1 % and 2 % has been numerically demonstrated.
Finally, fiber designs with five different hole-to-hole spacing (pitch) have been proposed. Each of the proposed fibers
exhibits remarkable chromatic dispersion properties, such as nearly-zero ultra-flattened dispersion over wide wavelength
range or zero dispersion at the wavelength of 1550 nm.
Presented work is a study of dispersion properties of photonic crystal fibers. The main objective is to design photonic crystal fibers suitable for potential compensation of group velocity dispersion of optical signals. New fiber structures are proposed, for example, a flattened-dispersion compensating photonic crystal fiber for broadband utilization in high-speed transmission systems is presented. The structure shows flattened negative value of dispersion over the O, C, and L bands. The fiber can eventually get applied in broadband optical signal recovery in systems with wavelength division multiplexing. Last but not least, a dual-core compensating microstructured fiber is optimized in order to achieve low dispersion and low loss at the C-band. Results presented in this work are obtained by using the FDFD method.
The contribution of this work is a new flat-dispersion fiber operating at telecom wavelengths. The investigation of
chromatic dispersion in PCFs is implemented by the study of modified highly-nonlinear PCF with flattened dispersion.
Required dispersion properties, achieved by balancing material and waveguide dispersion contribution, should be done
for wide spectrum of wavelengths. Flat dispersion could be used for dispersion compensation purposes in systems with
wavelength division multiplex. The main attention is paid to photonic crystal fibers that exhibit unique properties, being
the result of selective doping of rings of holes in the considered structures. It is shown from numerical results that
flattened dispersion of -0.025 ps/nm/km from a wavelength of 1200 nm to 1700 nm is achieved using a highly nonlinear
photonic crystal fiber. The systematic study includes the description of mutual relations between fiber chromatic
dispersion and the structural or material parameters. The results are obtained by using the full-vectorial finite difference
frequency domain method.
This paper deals with Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCF) that is not sensitive to bending. On one hand, fiber bending may
result in potential negative chromatic dispersion or coupling light from the fundamental mode into the cladding modes,
which opens many possibilities to design microstructured optical components for all-optical PCF-based system (group
velocity dispersion compensator, bending-induced zero-dispersion fiber, optical filter, optical switch, coupler, photonic
crystal cavity with electromagnetically induced transparency etc.) On the other hand, fiber bending is responsible for
huge bending losses. The goal of this paper is to reduce bending losses in an operating range of the designed fiber.
Reduction of bending losses could be considered as an optimization of the structure that exhibits negative chromatic
dispersion and low losses concurrently - then the component is utilizable for many specific applications as dispersion
compensator or as an optical switch. Another approach is to design the fiber that would be single-mode for wide range of
bending angles or bending radii, but the light is not being coupled into the cladding. Then, no negative chromatic
dispersion is produced and the fiber works as a conventional PCF, but not sensitive to bending in an office environment.
This paper is oriented to present a short overview of chosen aspects in the area of Photonic Crystal Fibers, primarily
nonlinear dispersion properties induced by fiber bending. This topic refers to applications of to microstructure optical
components of high-speed transmission systems, such as dispersion compensator based on negative chromatic dispersion
resulting from bending the fiber at certain radius. It is possible to achieve record-breaking negative dispersion (thousands
of ps/nm/km) at large effective mode area - done without doping in the core. Although the viability of application
negative CD to the compensation of group velocity is discussible (due to bending losses), there are conclusions about
tuning the zero-dispersion wavelength and designing the fiber that would not be sensitive for bending over the C-band at
office conditions. The study of effective indices for bending at different radii and for different fill fraction has been
provided. The essential problem was to provide a study of CD profiles, analysis of the phase-matching while coupling
between LP01 and cladding modes, defining the most optimal reference configuration ensuring the minimum negative
CD with calculation of the sensitivity of optical nonlinearities to the deviation of bending radius or imprecision of
structural parameters.
This paper deals with a new method of generation negative dispersion by introducing curvature into the fiber. The aim is
to make a proposal of a photonic structure that could be an optical dispersion compensator. Strong deformation of
fundamental mode for a certain bend radius results with negative dispersion of thousands of ps/nm/km at required
wavelength. The structure mustn't be symmetrical because introducing a curvature strictly defines direction of
deformation of the fundamental mode and splitting light into external holes making the mode highly dispersive. The
dispersion is the same for a symmetrical lattice and for a lattice with holes only in regions with strong confinement.
There is also a proposal of a unique detection method to precise the bend radius for which negative dispersion occurs.
Only for certain value of bend radius, for which cladding mode can appear at propagated wavelength, it is possible to
confine the mode and cause optical nonlinearities. Negative dispersion peak is accompanied by bending loss. Bending
loss is interesting because of the possibility of detection of this unique combination with negative dispersion. There are
local maxima of losses in loss wavelength dependency coming from the cladding modes. These cladding modes appear
only for certain values of bending and the fundamental mode is highly dispersive.
This letter deals with the possibilities of flexible control of dispersion governed by geometrical parameters such as core's size and normalized hole diameter d/Λ. Curves of total dispersion in function of wavelength, normalized hole diameter and core's size are presented. Limitations of possible run of total Group Velocity Dispersion like possibility of high order mode zero-dispersion wavelengths appearance is presented as well as possibility of deterioration of further important transmission parameters such as loss or modal regime is discussed. The set of structural set of the fiber is described.
This letter deals with the guidance mechanism in Photonic Crystal Fibers. Setting the band condition in a microstructure is described. The Mode Profile dependent on the band condition is presented. Cross-section patterns presenting the propagation of elecrtomagnetic field are shown. The comparison of a guidance mechanism in various types of PCF's is discussed. Cross-sections shots of Photonic Crystal Fibers set to suitable input parameters are presented, value of losses, normalized frequency of second mode cut-off are calculated. The choice of input parameters such as lattice constant or Refractive Index profile is discussed. Simulations of Single Mode propagation in a wide operating range are done.
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