In this study, behavior of ball grid arrays (BGA) under external cycling loading was studied. A loading system for
inducing cycling stress to BGA was successfully built. Dynamic electronic speckle pattern interferometry (DESPI)
with in-plane sensitivity and Hilbert transform for phase analysis was applied. The cycling deformation of one solder
ball was measured continuously. Temporal, whole-field deformation on one solder ball was demonstrated.
In this study, a novel optical interferometric technique called 'statistical interferometry'1-3 has been developed. In contrast to the conventional interferometry where the phase is determined in a completely deterministic way, we consider the interference of completely random wave fronts, i.e., speckle fields, and it has been proved that the complete randomness of the speckle field can play the role of a standard phase in a statistical sense. The advantage of the method is that since the phase of the object under testing can be derived in a statistical way, the accuracy of the measurement depends only on the number of data taken to calculate a probability density distribution of speckle phase. This feature permits a simple optical system to achieve measurements with an extremely high accuracy. According to a computer simulation, the accuracy of λ/1000 can be achieved using 40,000 data of the speckle intensity.
Statistical interferometry was applied to monitor biological activity or growth rate of plant, aiming to investigate the influence of the environmental pollutions. In the experiments, the plants were exposed to Ozone that is the main substance of photochemical smog, and the growth rates were measured before and after the exposure. It was clearly observed that the fluctuation of growth rate as well as its mean rate was dramatically affected by the exposure of ozone. By the observation of growth rate of plant with the accuracy of sub-nanometer scale and a time scale of second, it was newly revealed that the fluctuation of the growth rate reflects the biological activity of the plant.
A new phase contrast imaging system that permits a quantitative observation of phase distribution of a general object is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. This is realized by implementing the phase shifting technique in the phase contrast imaging system. A dye-doped nematic liquid-crystal (NLC) is newly employed for this purpose as a variable phase filter in contrast to the constant phase plate employed in the conventional phase contrast microscope (PCM). The dye-doped NLC provides a practical advantage to the system that realizes an alignment-free optical system for the phase plate. The self-alignment property of the phase filter is realized by utilizing the local phase transition from the liquid-crystal to liquid, which is induced by the relatively strong incident light of the specular component of the object. In the experiment, the fundamental phase modulation property and the response of phase modulation ability were measured as a function of incident power of light. Next, the phase measurements were performed with several phase gratings and composite objects having different phase amplitudes and absorption. As an experimental result, the usefulness of the proposed method was confirmed, and the accuracy of the phase measurement was estimated to be λ/40. In addition, it was also demonstrated that the phase information could be obtained independently from the absorption component of the object.
In relation to the monitoring the influence of the environmental pollution on the plant, we proposed a difference-image method and performed some preliminary experiments to observe the biological activities of the botanical objects based on the dynamic properties of laser speckles. Two successive speckle images of the plant obtained with a certain delay time are subtracted to show the difference in the two patterns due to the biological activity. In the experiments, validity of the proposed method was examined for the plants under the influence of the artificial acid rain and the ozone exposure. As experimental results, some characteristic changes were observed in the speckle difference images due to the damages, while it was very hard to recognize those changes by the human eye.
In this paper we proposed a Hilbert Transform to calculate the phase map. The data processing is performed in temporal domain, considering the temporal history of the interference signal at every single pixel. This results in a relatively high spatial resolution of the phase map. In addition, the phase method enables a fully automatic and does not require human interaction. The final results give a temporal development of two-dimensional deformation field. To reduce the influence of the fluctuations of bias intensity on the calculated phase, it was removed prior to performing the Hilbert Transform. The proposed method for analysis of the phase of dynamic ESPI was examined in two different experiments, i.e., plastic deformation studies, and thermal expansion studies. The dynamic range of measurements is increased from several tens of nanometers to several micrometers, which makes the method very attractive for dynamic measurement.
In this study, we are developing optical methods to monitor the condition of plant, i.e., biological activity or growth, aiming to investigate the influence of the environmental conditions. The statistical interferometry developed by the authors has been applied to measure the growth of the plant. This method utilizes the statistical properties of a fully developed speckle field and has the advantage of simple optical system to achieve measurements with an extremely high accuracy. In the experiments to demonstrate the validity of the method, the growth speeds of the plants were measured under various environmental conditions of watering and light illumination. It has been clearly demonstrated that the statistical interferometry has a high sensitivity for monitoring the growth of the plant at a nanometer scale with a high temporal resolution of second scale.
In order to measure the total mass per unit area of dew droplets deposited on a metal plate in the dew-point hygrometer, the shape of a dew droplet deposited on a copper plate was measured accurately by using an interference microscope that employed a phase-shift technique. The microscope was constructed by adding a piezoelectric transducer to an usual interference microscope. A simple method that uses a conventional speaker horn and an optical fiber cable was introduced to depress speckle noise. The shape of a dew droplet deposited on the copper plate surface with 0.1 μm in average roughness was measured with an accuracy of ±3nm. The mass of a dew droplet could be calculated numerically from the volume of its shape and was of the order of 10-9 g. The total mass of dew droplets deposited per unit area and the deposition velocity were obtained under a gentle wind. The total mass was the order of 10-5 g/cm2 at the beginning of deposition and the deposition velocity was ranged from 2x10-6 to 6x10-5 g/cm2.min.
We propose an experimental setup for an imaging system using a liquid crystal tunable filter (LCTF) to implement rewritable transparent broad-band color filters with arbitrary spectral transmittances. Holding-time for each transmitting wavelength of the LCTF is controlled corresponding to a computationally designed filter function, and a time-integrated intensity image is taken with a monochrome CCD camera through the LCTF. The averaged norm error between the implemented and the expected filter functions was about 10%. The system can be applied to spectral estimation, spectral based classification and spectral based parametr estimation.
The phenomena of Portevin-Le Chatelier (PLC) band propagation and its pulsation accompanying the serration of load curve in a tensile test of aluminum alloy were directly observed by using dynamic digital speckle pattern interferometry method. In the plastic deformation stage, a slip band is formed and propagates repeatedly along the tensile direction with a certain speed and a certain bandwidth. The propagation speed decreases gradually with the increasing of plastic deformation, and finally the specimen cracks at the position where the band stops. The same slip fringe patterns observed from the front surface and rear surface of the specimen simultaneously show that the slip plane goes through the thickness of specimen. Pulsation of fringe density in the inside of the slip band accompanying with the serrations of load curve was observed. The pulsation period corresponds with the width of the serration. When the load falls in the serrations, the slip deformation happens just like an avalanche, and the time of the avalanche slip is less than 0.03 seconds. Corresponding to the happening of the avalanche slip, dense shrinkage fringes appear on the outside of the slip band. The specimen takes a shrinkage deformation in the outside of the slip band to compensate the elongation deformation in slip band at the moment of avalanche slip, even for a tensile test. The elongation value in the inside of the slip band causing by the avalanche slip is in the order of 10 micrometers by calculating with observed results.
A dynamic process of deformation in a tensile experiment of an Al-alloy sample was analyzed by a newly developed ESPI system. In a plastic deformation state after yielding of the mailer, propagating strain concentrated band which corresponds to serration by Portevin-LeChatelier effect was observed. In the band, repetition of increasing and decreasing of number of fringes was observed. The phenomenon means the wavy propagation of a plastic deformation state accompanied by localized strain pulsation. Phase analysis of dynamically deforming object was also done.
A dynamic process of tensile experiment of austenitic stainless steel was observed by electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) which enables us to observe entire process of whole field deformation. In plastic deformation state, localized deformation appeared as concentrated correlation fringes in a narrow band, which run over the specimen repeatedly. Correspondingly, a stress curve took zigzag variation. In microscopic surface observation of fractured samples, martensite were found together with crashed grain. Increase of hardness was also confirmed. It means that strain induced martensitic transformation generates in part in heterogeneous structure of the material. These phenomena vary depending on carbon content and tensile speed. Correspondingly, propagating behavior of the band observed by ESPI, e.g. band propagating speed varies. It suggests that ESPI observation makes it possible to diagnose material degradation under in situ condition.
In this paper, a dual-beam in-plane sensitive electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) is applied to observe the degradation process of aluminum alloy plates under loading conditions. A quantitative phase analysis is performed using an addition-subtraction method.
Statistical interferometry is applied to the measurement of thermal strain of object having an interface of two different materials. The technique is based on the statistics of the fully developed speckle field. The complete randomness of the speckle phase can play the role of a standard phase in a statistical sense, and the phase of the object under testing can be derived in a statistical way, in contrast to the conventional interferometry. In this study, the optical system is optimized to measure the thermal strain in a very small region around the interface of joint specimen. Experimental results show that the present method permits the measurement of strain with the accuracy approximately 10-6 with a spatial resolution > 50 micrometers .
In this study, we propose an optical transparent broad-band filter system which can be used to measure a color spectrum and two-dimensional spectral images. The filter function of this system can be changed and rewritten arbitrarily. Spectral distribution of an object color can be represented by a set of inner products between optimized filter functions and the spectral distribution of a sample. In our system, a test image is observed through the filter part consists of a liquid crystal spatial light modulator (LCSLM) and a linear variable filter (LVF) attached together. The intensity image of a sample is taken while the joint device (LCSLM and LVF) is moving just in front of the lens aperture of the CCD-camera. The spectral distribution of the intensity image through the proposed filter almost coincided with the expected filter functions. From the detected intensity images correspond to the inner products between the color filters and a sample, the color spectra of the sample were reconstructed by the use of inverse matrix. The data obtained from the filtering process is only four monochrome images. It is convenient for storing and transmitting the spectral image. The experimental results of measuring a color spectrum and two-dimensional spectral images are presented.
In this work we propose a prototype of the spectral vision system, which can be used to measure a color spectrum and two- dimensional spectral images. We first designed a low- dimensional broad band color filter set with a constraint of positive spectral values by the unsupervised neural network. Then we constructed a compact size optical setup for the spectral synthesizer, which can be used to synthesize the light corresponding to the spectral characteristics of the color filter. In the optical setup we implemented the color filters by the use of the liquid crystal spatial light modulator (LCSLM). In our experiments we illuminated a sample of a real world scene by the synthesized lights and detected the intensity images of the filtering process by the CCD- camera. The intensity images correspond to the optically calculated inner products between the color filters and a sample. The data obtained from the filtering process is only a few monochrome images and therefore convenient for storing and transmitting spectral images. From the detected inner products we reconstructed the sample's color spectra by the use of inverse matrix. We present experimental results of measuring a single color spectrum and two-dimensional spectral images.
Degradation processes of welded materials from the beginning of tensile until fracture were investigated by laser speckle interferometry (LSI). In the LSI system, speckle patterns are acquired continuously by a CCD camera while the tested object is deformed. A series of speckle correlation fringe patterns are obtained by subtracting couples of two interfering speckle patterns while the reference speckle patterns are renewed successively. The localized strain can be identified occasionally as the remarkably white band (WB) or irregular patterns in the correlation fringe patterns. The behavior of deformation on the specimen surface was visualized on a video monitor as moving correlation fringe patterns. In the experiment of welded specimens, the WB or irregular fringe patterns due to the localized deformation was observed for the first time at the welding part of the specimen in the elastic stage of deformation. The position of the WB was stationary although the loading progresses. Finally the specimen fractured at the position of the WB or the location of the welding. The LSI system is expected to be applicable to identify defect in the solid materials.
Spectral distribution of photoelastic color have direct relationship with difference of principal stresses. Spectral distributions corresponding to known stress values are measured and used as learning data of unsupervised neural network. Optimal filter functions are designed by an unsupervised neural network. The learning data is also used as a scale for recognition of spectral distribution of unknown stress. Photoelastic sample under different stresses is illuminated by the light generated by a spectral synthesizer which consist of dispersing system including liquid crystal spatial light (LCSLM) modulator. By controlling the transparency of LCSLM modulator using supervised neural network, several the illuminating light are made so that their spectral distribution are same with filter functions and they are used as the light source photoelastic interferometer. From intensities recorded, spectral distributions are calculated. Stresses are estimated by comparing recorded intensities with scale made from learning data.
In this study, we have examined the possibility of using an anti-ferroelectric liquid-crystal (AFLC) as a high speed phase modulator. The AFLC has the major advantage that it has three stable states in contrast to the ferroelectric liquid-crystal which has only two states. This feature permits the application of AFLC as a fast phase modulator in the phase shifting interferometer. However, AFLC also modulates the intensity of transmitted light as well as its phase. Based on theoretical analysis, it was found that doping a dichroic dye to AFLC cell can suppress the intensity modulation. Moreover, such a dye-doped AFLC phase modulator can perform as a self- align phase modulator. Such a self-align phase modulator permits a practically advantageous alignment-free optical system, for instance, in phase contrast microscope, point diffraction interferometer etc. Preliminary experiments were performed to demonstrate the validity of the dye-doped AFLC cell. Finally, we also examine the application of the dye- doped AFLC phase modulator to phase shifting interferometer.
In this study, an optical system to generate contrast- enhanced speckles from ordinary rough surface object is proposed. Its statistical properties are studied as a function of the surface roughness and the defocusing distance in detail with special attention to its application to the determination of the roughness. It is revealed that the contrast of contrast-enhanced speckles depends only on the rms roughness of the rough surface object. Usefulness of the contrast-enhanced speckles on the measurement of surface roughness of the object is experimentally confirmed.
Whole deformation processes and slipboard propagation of aluminum alloy in tensile experiments are directly observed on whole field in real time by dynamic speckle interferometry. In plastic deformation, an inclined white band appears. It sweeps the specimen surface repeatedly in a certain sped and band width along the tensile direction. Sometimes the inclined angle of the white band transfers symmetrically. With plastic deformation increasing, the band speed decreases gradually, and the specimen cracks finally at the position where the band stops. Transient process of the white band formation is captured with a high speed CCD camera. It is revealed that the white band is a sharp slip deforming region consisted of concentrated inclined fringes. An interesting phenomenon that the strain value at a point of the specimen surface changes like a stair shape is accounted by the sweeping movement of the slipboard. The moving picture encoding technique is introduced to encode all of the sequential fringe patterns as one MPEG2 file. By watching the moving picture, the analysis of a huge volume of fringe patterns becomes easy, and subtle changes of fringe patterns can be observed clearly.
Degradation processes of stressed solid materials was investigated by newly developed speckle interferometry. Sequence of speckle correlation fringes were obtained by subtracting couples of interfering speckle patterns successively acquired. The behavior of plastic deformation and fracture were observed on a video monitor as moving fringe patterns of in-plane deformation components. In experiments of a specimen of carbon steel S45C, we observed a characteristic white band which can be interpreted as a Luder's band sweeping over the specimen in the yielding state of the loading test. In experiments of an aluminum alloy specimen, complicated movement of a white and was found corresponding to load serration.
Fundamental properties of phase modulation ability of a nematic liquid-crystal (NLC) cell is first studied. Based on the phase modulation property of the liquid-crystal (LC) cell, a new type of speckle shearing interferometer is proposed. In the method, a LC cell is employed as a phase shifter to implement the phase shifting method for the conventional speckle shearing interferometer. Next, a phase unwrapping method that particularly has the advantage of unwrapping of phase distribution with severe noise such as those obtained in speckle interferometry is proposed. Computer simulations were carried out to examine the performance of the proposed method. Finally, experiments were made to demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed phase shifting speckle interferometer together with the improved phase unwrapping method.
A new method to determine optical pass differences of white light interference fringes based on spectral analysis and subspace method is proposed and applied to analyze an image of a differential interference microscope. Experiments to measure curvature of a bearing bowl well agreed with the value measured by a digital micrometer.
Small dew droplets, which deposited on the mirror surface of a copper plate, were measured by using an interference microscope to evaluate the quality of dew deposited on the mirror surface of the dew-point hygrometer. A He-Ne laser of 10 mW and an optical fiber cable of 3 mm in diameter and 120 cm in length were used as a light source and an optical guide to the microscope. The fiber cable was shaken slightly with an acoustic speaker to reduce speckle noise in the interference images. A shape of dew droplet deposited on the mirror surface of the copper plate was obtained from the interference fringes, and the mass thickness of dew droplets was also obtained by numerical calculation of the volumes of each dew droplet deposited and was of the order of 10-5 g/cm2. The deposition velocities of dew on the surface under slow wind velocity were also measured.
Spectroscopic classification of a color image is very important to identify materials in an observing field such as a microscopic image of stained biological samples. Since spectroscopic image contains great many information, any data compression is required. Vector subspace method is an outgrowth of linear feature extraction and data compression in statistical pattern recognition. J.Parkkinen et.a1.1) showed that the subspace method was well applicable to spectral recognition and classification of colors. Optical implementation using a liquid crystal spatial light modulator (LCSLM) was also presented. In this paper, the method is expanded to spectroscopic classification of a two-dimensional color image.
We have developed a toroidal surface measuring interferometer system. One of the key features of our interferometer system is its ability to measure a toroidal surface without a toroidal wave front and a toroidal reference surface. Our optical system consists of a Fizeau interferometer using a spherical wave front. A cross section figure of the test surface is obtained to analyze interference fringes like a striped bar by using the Fourier transform method. We can then connect each cross section over the entire surface figure by rotation of a rotary table. Results of examination show that the accuracy of our measuring system is better than (lambda) /20 P-V.
A new technique of optical interferometry based on the statistics of the fully developed speckle field is proposed. It is revealed that the complete randomness of the speckle phase can play a role of a standard phase in a statistical sense, and the phase of the object under testing can be derived in a statistical way, in contrast to conventional interferometry. The technique is first described in relation to the phase-shifting interferometry and the compensation problem for the phase-shift error. Next the method is generalized as an independent interferometric technique.
Fundamental properties of phase modulation ability of a nematic liquid crystal cell is first studied. Based on the phase modulation property of the liquid crystal cell, a new type of speckle shearing interferometer is proposed and studied experimentally. In the method, a liquid crystal cell is employed as a phase shifter to implement the phase shifting method for the conventional speckle shearing interferometer. From the experiments to measure the deformation of an object, usefulness of the method is confirmed.
A new type of speckle shearing interferometer is proposed and studied experimentally. In the method a liquid-crystal is employed as a phase shifter to apply the phase shifting method for the conventional speckle shearing interferometer. The phase of the transmitted light is changed due to its birefringent property for the applied electric field. It is shown from the measurements of the fundamental properties of the liquid-crystal that the additional phase introduced between the sheared two images can be precisely controlled up to about 2ir by changing the applying voltage. From the experiments to measure the deformation of an object having a rough surface usefulness of the method is confirmed. 1.
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