Most studies of the electromagnetic induction (EMI) response of a low-metal landmine buried in soil ignore any
influence that the plastic casing may have on such response. In most cases such treatment is adequate since
only the metal components of a landmine are expected to contribute to such a response. However, when the
landmine is buried in a soil that has significant conductivity and/or magnetic susceptibility, the electromagnetic
void created by the casing may have an influence on the EMI response of the landmine. That possibility is
investigated using a simple analytical model and an experiment. A sphere is chosen as a simple prototype for
the small metal parts in low-metal landmines, and a concentric spherical shell, made of foamed polystyrene,
encasing the sphere is used to represent the plastic landmine body. The time-domain EMI response is measured
using a purpose-designed system based on a modified Schiebel AN19/2 metal detector. Responses of the metallic
sphere, the polystyrene shell and the metal-polystyrene composite target are measured with the targets buried
in magnetic soil half-spaces. The particular soil type for which data are presented in this paper is Cambodian
"laterite" with dispersive magnetic susceptibility, which serves as a good model for soils that are known to affect
the performance of metal detectors. The metal sphere used has a diameter of 0.0254 m and is made of 6061-T6
aluminum, and the polystyrene shell has an outer diameter of 0.15 m. For the specific soil and targets used,
theoretical results show that a small effect on the time-domain response is expected from the presence of the
polystyrene casing. Experimental results confirm this for the case of the buried polystyrene shell. However the small difference in the example of the composite target is masked by experimental errors.
In a series of previous papers, analytical results dealing with the effects of soil electromagnetic properties on the
performance of induction metal detectors were reported. In this paper experimental data are provided to verify
some previously reported results. The time-domain response of a magnetic soil half-space and a small metallic
sphere situated in air as well as buried in the soil were measured using a purpose-designed system based on a
modified Schiebel AN19/2 metal detector. As in the previous work, the sphere is chosen as a simple prototype for
the small metal parts in low-metal landmines. The soil used was Cambodian "laterite" with dispersive magnetic
susceptibility, which serves as a good model for soils that are known to adversely affect the performance of metal
detectors. The metal object used was a sphere of diameter 0.0254 m made of 6061-T6 aluminum. Experimental
data are in good agreement with theoretical predictions. Data also show that for the weakly magnetic soil used
in the experiments, the total response of the buried sphere is the sum of the response of the soil and that of the
sphere placed in air. This finding should simplify the prediction or measurement of response of buried targets
as one can separately measure/compute the response of an object in air and that of the host media and simply
add the two. This simplification may not be possible for soils that are more strongly magnetic.
The Improved Landmine Detection System (ILDS) is intended to meet Canadian military mine clearance requirements in rear area combat situations and peacekeeping on roads and tracks. The system consists of two teleoperated vehicles and a command vehicle. The teleoperated protection vehicle precedes, clearing antipersonnel mines and magnetic and tilt rod-fuzed antitank mines. It consists of an armoured personnel carrier with a forward looking infrared imager, a finger plow or roller and a magnetic signature duplicator. The teleoperated detection vehicle follows to detect antitank mines. The purpose-built vehicle carries forward looking infrared and visible imagers, a 3 m wide, down-looking sensitive electromagnetic induction detector array and a 3 m wide down-looking ground probing radar, which scan the ground in front of the vehicle. Sensor information is combined using navigation sensors and custom navigation, registration, spatial correspondence and data fusion algorithms. Suspicious targets are then confirmed by a thermal neutron activation detector. The prototype, designed and built by Defence R&D Canada, was completed in October 1997. General Dynamics Canada delivered four production units, based on the prototype concept and technologies, to the Canadian Forces (CF) in 2002. ILDS was deployed in Afghanistan in 2003, making the system the first militarily fielded, teleoperated, multi-sensor vehicle-mounted mine detector and the first with a fielded confirmation sensor. Performance of the prototype in Canadian and independent US trials is summarized and recent results from the production version of the confirmation sensor are discussed. CF operations with ILDS in Afghanistan are described.
This paper analyzes the effect of the soil on the response of a metal detector (MD). The total response is first decomposed in a direct coupling between the transmitter and the receiver, the mine contribution and the soil contribution. The mine contribution is further related to its free space signature by introducting a number of transfer functions (TFs). Those TFs characterize the effect of the soil on the field propagation, from the transmit coil to the mine and back to the receiver, and on the mine signature. The expressions derived are quite general. However the TFs and other quantities of interest can only be computed if the scattering problem has been solved. For this it is usually necessary to resort to numerical techniques. Such techniques are computationally expensive, especially to analyze the various effects of the soil as they require to compute the solution for a large set of parameters. Therefore, we propose to model a buried mine by a multilayered sphere. From outside to inside, the layers represent the air, the soil, the mine explosive and the mine metallic content. Further, the analytic solution for such a multilayered sphere is used to compute the mine and soil responses, the mine free space signature and the various TFs as a function of the parameters of interest such as the soil electromagnetic (EM) properties or the mine depth. Finally, the validity domain of a number of practical approximations is discussed.
Many soil physical and chemical properties interfere with landmine detection. Prior knowledge of these properties would improve detection technology selection and increase demining safety and efficiency. Developments in rapid mapping of these properties over wide areas is essential to meet military and economic constraints. Fusion of multiple detection technologies is also essential to overcome detection signal interferences. For these purposes, rapid mapping by use of remote sensing is being tested, starting with electrical conductivity mapping by radar remote sensing. Laboratory induced-polarization (IP) is also being tested to develop techniques to discriminate between electromagnetic signals from metallic particles in landmines and in soil, for regions with detection interference. Key physical models of soil are being developed for fusion of various landmine detection systems and to explain remote sensing responses to soil.
Radar satellite tests carried out over the Canadian Forces Base Suffield (CFBS; Alberta, Canada) in 2004 and 2005 indicated 10 areas for possible high clay content and electrical conductivity. Eight of these were validated by soil maps and Landsat clay images. Two had high organic content with physical characteristics not known at present. Studies on soil with fine-grained iron-oxide powder and on iron with varied degrees of corrosion show that spectral-IP is sensitive to iron or iron-oxides regardless of their state. Soil has layered structure consisting of various grain-size combinations, but its physical characteristics are significantly influenced by whether its clay content is above or below a critical clay content (15 to 25 %). Results of these tests are discussed in this paper with explanations using the soil physical model.
The work reported in this paper is a part of on-going studies to clarify how and to what extent soil electromagnetic properties affect the performance of induction metal detectors widely used in humanitarian demining. This paper studies the specific case of the time-domain response of a small metallic sphere buried in a non-conducting soil half-space with frequency-dependent complex magnetic susceptibility. The sphere is chosen as a simple prototype for the small metal parts in low-metal landmines, while soil with dispersive magnetic susceptibility is a good model for some soils that are known to adversely affect the performance of metal detectors. The included analysis and computations extend previous work which has been done mostly in the frequency domain. Approximate theoretical expressions for weakly magnetic soils are found to fit the experimental data very well, which allowed the estimation of soil model parameters, albeit in an ad hoc manner. Soil signal is found to exceed target signal (due to an aluminum sphere of radius 0.0127 m) in many cases, even for the weakly magnetic Cambodian laterite used in the experiments. How deep a buried target is detected depends on many other factors in addition to the relative strength of soil and target signals. A general statement cannot thus be made regarding detectability of a target in soil based on the presented results. However, computational results complemented with experimental data extend the understanding of the effect that soil has on metal detectors.
Many soil physical and chemical properties interfere with landmine detection signals. Since prior knowledge of these property distributions would allow appropriate technology selection and efficient demining operations, rapid mapping of these properties over wide areas are considered for meeting military and economic constraints. As soil electrical conductivity (EC) interferes with widely used detection systems, such as metal detectors and ground penetrating radar, we have started with developing a rapid mapping technique for EC using remote sensing. Electromagnetic surveys are proven methods for mapping EC, but do not provide all information required for demining. Therefore, EC prediction by imaging of soil moisture change using radar satellite imagery acquired by RADARSAT is being tested in eastern Alberta (Canada) and northern Mississippi (U.S.A.). Areas of little soil moisture change with time are associated with high moisture retention and high clay content, suggesting higher EC. These soil characteristics are also associated with trafficability.
RADARSAT soil moisture change detection images for eastern Alberta identified five areas with possible high moisture retention characteristics. Validation by soil and trafficability maps verified the predictions for more than half of the areas. Lack of some prediction accuracy is considered due to image acquisition timing and lack of physical property knowledge of some soil constituents.
Soils that are conductive or magnetic or both can adversely affect the operation of induction metal detectors widely used to detect buried landmines. Although this effect has been known for a long time, it is only recently that efforts to rigorously characterize and quantify it has been initiated. The work reported in this paper is a part of on-going studies to clarify which properties of soil are
important and to what extent they affect the performance of metal detectors which operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The electromagnetic response of a buried small metallic sphere is analyzed and computed. The results are used to investigate the influence that electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility of the host soil have on the signal produced by a target and hence on its detectability by a metal detector. The burial medium is modelled as a half-space. While soil electrical conductivity has been assumed to be real and independent of frequency, its magnetic susceptibility has been modelled as complex and frequency-dependent in general. Results include three specific cases of practical importance, namely, non-conducting soil with constant susceptibility, non-conducting soil with frequency-dependent susceptibility and non-magnetic soil with constant conductivity.
Physical properties, such as soil moisture, magnetic susceptibility and electrical conductivity (EC) are sources of signal interference for many landmine detectors. Soil EC mechanisms and their relationship to moisture are being studied to increase the soil EC prediction accuracy by radar remote sensing, airborne and ground electromagnetic (EM) methods. This is required for effective detection operations in problematic regions of the world. Results indicate that responses of free water and bound water to drying rates and EC are very different, to the extent that moist clay-poor soil may have lower EC compared to dryer clay-rich soil at certain moisture contents. These suggest that soil EC prediction should start with analyses of radar remote sensing data acquired on separate days, followed by high frequency airborne EM surveys, and validation by ground EM surveys and laboratory soil sample analyses. Due to the various expertise required, a team of relevant experts (e.g., geology, geophysics, remote sensing, petrophysics, agriculture, soil physics, electrical engineering and demining) should be organized to provide information on detector viability for demining in problematic areas in the world. It is also proposed to develop wide frequency band EM systems to provide much of the required information in one measurement.
Some soils can adversely affect the operation of sensitive metal detectors widely used to detect buried landmines. Although there has been some related work in geophysics, researchers in metal detection techniques, until very recently, seem to have largely ignored the issue of problem soil. As a result, rigorous scientific investigations of how soil electromagnetic properties may affect the operation of metal detectors are lacking. Thus, there is a need for
theoretical and experimental studies to clarify which electromagnetic properties are important and to what extent they affect the performance of metal detectors of various designs. The paper presents a systematic analytical framework, based on existing work in geophysics and non-destructive testing, for studying the effects of soil electromagnetic properties on the functioning of metal
detectors. For this initial study the burial medium is modelled as a half-space. While soil electrical conductivity has been assumed to be real and independent of frequency, soil magnetic susceptibility has been modelled as complex and frequency dependent. Simplified versions of the analysis techniques have been applied to three selected cases of practical importance, namely, non-conducting soil with constant susceptibility, non-conducting soil with frequency-dependent susceptibility and non-magnetic soil with constant conductivity. Results from a preliminary analysis of even these simple cases explain a number of previous experimental observations, for example, the greater influence of magnetic properties than of electrical conductivity on the performance of metal detectors.
Landmines are buried typically in the top 30 cm of soil. A number of
physical, chemical and electromagnetic properties of this near-surface layer of ground will potentially affect the wide range of technologies under development worldwide for landmine detection and neutralization. Although standard soil survey information, as related to conventional soil classification, is directed toward agricultural and environmental applications, little or no information seems to
exist in a form that is directly useful to humanitarian demining and the related R&D community. Thus, there is a general need for an information database devoted specifically to relevant soil properties, their geographic distribution and climate-driven variability. A brief description of the various detection technologies is used to introduce the full range of related soil properties. Following a general description of the need to establish a comprehensive soil property database, the discussion is then narrowed to soil properties affecting electromagnetic induction metal
detectors - a problem of much restricted scope but of immediate and direct relevance to humanitarian demining. In particular, the complex magnetic susceptibility and, to a lesser degree, electrical conductivity of the host soil influence the performance of these widely used tools, and in the extreme instance, can render detectors
unusable. A database comprising these properties for soils of landmine-affected countries would assist in predicting local detector
performance, planning demining operations, designing and developing
improved detectors and establishing realistic and representative
test-evaluation facilities. The status of efforts made towards
developing a database involving soil electromagnetic properties is reported.
Factors controlling the distribution and intensity of soil magnetic susceptibility (MS) and electrical conductivity (EC) were investigated. The purpose was to determine the factors to be considered in predicting MS and EC characteristics of soils in landmine-affected areas and in developing effective landmine detection systems and strategies. Results indicate that knowledge of bedrock geology, soil weathering and transportation (wind and water) history is essential to predict soil MS and EC characteristics. These factors determine the distribution, concentration and mineral type (e.g. ferromagnetic and clay minerals) in soil. For example, fluctuating water tables in tropical climates could produce soils rich in ferromagnetic minerals at the surface, even though their source (bedrock) may have low iron content. Also, subsequent weathering may change these minerals to high or low MS values. Although high clay concentrations homogeneously distributed may not produce high soil EC values, a low clay content concentrated in a single layer may produce extremely high EC values. These suggest that bedrock geology, agricultural soil, air photo and airborne geophysical survey maps can be used for predicting soils MS and EC characteristics of landmine-affected areas. Laboratory and surficial geophysical surveys are techniques for use in validation.
Defence R&D Canada (DRDC), an agency within the Department of National Defence, has been conducting research and development (R&D) on the detection of landmines for countermine operations and of unexploded ordnance (UXO) for range clearance since 1975. The Canadian Centre for Mine Action Technologies (CCMAT), located at DRDC Suffield, was formed in 1998 to carry out R&D related to humanitarian demining. The lead group responsible for formulating and executing both countermine and humanitarian R&D programs in detection is the Threat Detection Group at DRDC Suffield. This paper describes R&D for both programs under the major headings of remote minefield detection, close-in scanning detection, confirmation detection and teleoperated systems. Among DRDC's achievements in landmine and UXO detection R&D are pioneering work in electromagnetic and magnetic identification and classification; the first military-fielded multisensor, teleoperated vehicle-mounted landmine detection system; pioneering use of confirmation detectors for multisensor landmine detection systems; the first fielded thermal neutron activation landmine confirmation sensor; the first detection of landmines using a real-time hyperspectral imager; electrical impedance imaging detection of landmines and UXO and a unique neutron backscatter landmine imager.
For the past three years, we have been systematically exploring the issues involved in using ground penetrating radar (GPR) for anti-personnel (AP) landmine detection. Our focus has been on testing and understanding the basic issues using existing commercial GPR. We have investigated the following factors affecting landmine detection: mine characteristics, soil physical properties, soil water content, surface roughness, antenna height and signal polarization. Field testing in controlled conditions and numerical techniques have been used to parametrically study response factors. Based on our research, the AP landmine fabrication characteristics are critical in determining the magnitude and response character, spatial processing is essential to see the targets against background variability, optimal spectral bandwidth is 500 to 2000 MHz and the practical issues of deploying sensors in rough field conditions are a major challenge.
KEYWORDS: Optical spheres, Electromagnetic coupling, Data modeling, Electromagnetism, Land mines, Metals, Computer simulations, Sensors, Signal to noise ratio, Error analysis
One of the long-standing goals in landmine and UXO detection research has been to identify metal objects based on their electromagnetic induction~(EMI) responses. An often-pursued approach is to model the time-domain response of an object with a sum of damped real exponentials whose amplitude and decay coefficients are related to the object's geometric and electromagnetic properties. Using this model, a measured response can be processed, by a number of techniques, in an attempt to extract the associated amplitude and decay coefficients of the constituent exponentials. These coefficients can be potentially related to the object's physical properties. Some years ago the authors investigated this approach using computer simulated data with added noise. Even for the simple case of a sphere, it was not possible to reliably and uniquely estimate the amplitudes and decay constants, particularly in the absence of some a priori information about the object. The basic problem is that damped real exponentials are highly correlated functions. That is, while it is easy to fit a response with a sum of these exponentials, the accuracy of the estimate of their parameters (amplitude and decay constants) is not guaranteed, making it difficult to relate extracted parameters to object properties. The paper illustrates this point using the EMI response of a sphere and the characteristics of fitting exponential sums to data. For objects more complex than the sphere, there will be additional problems such as the dependence of the response on object orientation and depth. In practice, the problem will be exacerbated by low signal strength (particularly for minimum metal landmines), uncertain or unknown object location and depth and the occurrence of a large number of false targets, some of which will have responses which are statistically identical with that of the target being sought. As well, a false target in the proximity of a real target will alter or totally mask the response of the latter.
Electromagnetic (EM: Magnetic Susceptibility [MS], Electrical Conductivity) and soil texture characteristics were determined for a Cambodian soil from an area where landmine detection interference has been experienced. The purpose was to collect information for developing techniques to discriminate between EM signals from small metallic particles in landmines and from iron-oxides or ferromagnetic mineral grains in soil. Ferromagnetic minerals are iron-oxides with strong MS characteristics. Results indicate that this soil consisted of four textural components: clasts (2-10 mm), medium-coarse-sand (<2.0 mm), fine-sand (<0.25 mm) and clay-silt (<0.063 mm). The coarse-sand had high MS values (~550x10-8 SI/kg) due to high ferromagnetic mineral content (~20 wt.%). Some large rounded clasts, however, had considerably higher MS values (~11000x10-8 SI/kg) due to high ferromagnetic mineral concentrations (30-60 wt.%), a likely source of significant landmine detection interference. The finer components had smaller MS values and iron-oxide contents. Complex electrical conductivity (1-106 Hz) of iron-oxides showed significant frequency dependence due to capacitance effects of electrochemical double layers on their surfaces in contact with soil moisture. This frequency dependence of iron-oxides may provide opportunities for potential EM system's design to discriminate between soil and landmine responses.
The International Pilot Project for Technology Co-operation in landmine detection is a multinational effort with participation from government agencies and research institutes from Canada, the USA, the UK, the Netherlands and the European Commission. One goal of the pilot project is to provide technical information on a number of commercial metal/landmine detectors to sponsors and end users of such technology, to help them make informed decisions about equipment selection in humanitarian demining. To this end, a series of laboratory and field tests have been conducted by the project team at various locations. A significant component of these tests was the tests conducted in a controlled laboratory environment at the Defence Research Establishment Suffield, Alberta, Canada. These tests focused on a detector's ability to detect objects in air (also referred to as its in-air sensitivity) and assessed how much this sensitivity would be affected by various parameters that model some real-world conditions, such as the presence of moisture, variation of sweep speed, electronic drift and so on. While a detector's ability to detect objects in air does not always indicate its ability to detect objects buried in the ground, such controlled tests are very useful in comparing certain basic performance factors of the electronics of a given detector and in understanding a detector's performance in the field. Six different in-air tests were conducted on 29 models of commercial-off-the-shelf metal detectors from a number of manufacturers. The paper discusses the methodology and results of these tests.
Conventional vehicle-mounted mine detector system employ an array of sensor elements to achieve a detection swath. Some systems employ more than one type of sensor technology. These systems, while being very useful, are often expensive, complex and inflexible. A human operator, on the other hand, sweeps a mine detector from side to side while moving forward to cover ground. The operator can follow the ground profile with the detector head close to the ground without hitting the ground or any objects on it. She can also vary the width of sweep to suit a particular situation, and is usually not limited by terrain. In this paper we present the concept and early prototype of a system that incorporates the advantages of the two methods described above while minimizing the disadvantages of both. For example, it will have the flexibility of a manual system with the rapid and safer mechanized scanning of the vehicle-mounted system but at a reduced cost, size and overall system complexity, when compared to existing approaches. Our approach uses an articulated robotic device capable of automatically moving mine detection sensor over natural ground surfaces including roads and tracks in a manner similar to a human operator. The system can also easily be used to place a confirmatory point sensor at a specific location if needed. The early prototype, which incorporates only a metal detector for a mine sensor, implements ground following by using a laser range finder and four ultrasonic sensors.
A vehicle-width array of metal detectors is one of the sensor systems used in most present day vehicle-mounted mine detectors. Data furnished by such a metal detector array consist of an output from each sensor channel as a function of time which is usually converted to a function of position. In multisensor systems where target-level data fusion is used, there is a need for techniques to process such data in order to detect and locate targets in realtime as the array scans the ground surface. One conventional way of processing such data is to apply a thresholding algorithm to data from each sensor channel separately and infer the presence of a target under a given coil or a number of coils. Such as approach could be very limited and cumbersome particularly when one has to consider large arrays with complex interaction between sensor and targets that produce a response in a number of sensor channels simultaneously. In this paper we model the data from the detector array as a scrolling image and develop a target detection and location scheme based on image processing concepts. Modifications of multiresolution and template-matching algorithms of 'peak' detection are developed using domain -specific knowledge of metal detector arrays. The resulting technique, which also uses dynamic thresholding to allow realtime operation, is illustrated using measured data from a 24-element, 3-meter wide metal detector array.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Mining, Data fusion, Land mines, Target detection, Metals, Detection and tracking algorithms, General packet radio service, Electromagnetic coupling, Vehicle control
The Improved Landmine Detector Project (ILDP) was initiated in Autumn 1994 to develop a prototype teleoperated vehicle mounted mine detector for low metal content and nonmetallic mines to meet the Canadian requirements for rear area mine clearance in combat situations and peacekeeping on roads and tracks. The relatively relaxed requirements, such as low speed and reduced detectability of completely nonmetallic mines, greatly increase the likelihood of success. The ILDP system consists of a unique teleoperated vehicle carrying a forward looking infrared imager, a 3 m wide down-looking highly sensitive electromagnetic induction detector and a 3 m wide down-looking ground probing radar, which all scan the ground in front of the vehicle. Scanning sensor information is combined using a suite of navigation sensors and custom designed navigation, spatial correspondence and data fusion algorithms. Suspect targets are then confirmed by a thermal neutron analysis detector. A key element to the success of the system is the combination of sensor information. This requires coordinated communication between the sensors and navigation system and well designed sensor co-registration, spatial correspondence and data fusion methodologies. These complex tasks are discussed in detail. The advanced development model was completed in October 1997 and testing and improvements are ongoing. Results of system performance during extensive field trials are presented. A follow-on project has been initiated to build four to six production units for the Canadian Forces by the year 2000.
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