KEYWORDS: Planets, Signal to noise ratio, Point spread functions, Exoplanetary science, Stars, Coherence imaging, Telescopes, Electric fields, Coronagraphy, Optical coherence
With the commencement of the development of the Habitable Worlds Observatory, it is imperative that the community has an understanding of (1) the stability requirements for the observatory to inform the design and (2) the gains expected from post-processing to inform observing scenarios and science yield estimates. We demonstrate that a previously developed, photon-efficient dark zone maintenance (DZM) algorithm that corrects quasi-static wavefront error drifts using only science images is compatible with traditional post-processing techniques. Further, we augment the DZM algorithm to estimate the coherent and incoherent light separately and introduce three novel post-processing techniques that leverage the concurrent estimation of coherent and incoherent light. With the DZM algorithm implemented on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes testbed at the Space Telescope Science Institute, artificial drifts are injected as a random walk on a set of deformable mirrors and are corrected with DZM. We present an injected fake planet recovered in post-processing using a variety of techniques, such as angular differential imaging (ADI), and three additional techniques: incoherent accumulated imaging, software-based coherent differential imaging, and coherent reference differential imaging. All post-processing techniques can recover an injected planet at the same contrast level as the dark zone background contrast (∼8×10−8), and the ADI technique is shown to recover a 4×10−8 planet in a 8×10−8 dark zone. For a space-based observatory, this would mean that, if the instrument can reach a contrast level, we can maintain it and recover a planet that is undetectable in a single frame.
We summarize the current best polychromatic (∼10% to 20% bandwidth) contrast performance demonstrated in the laboratory by different starlight suppression approaches and systems designed to directly characterize exoplanets around nearby stars. We present results obtained by internal coronagraph and external starshade experimental testbeds using entrance apertures equivalent to off-axis or on-axis telescopes, either monolithic or segmented. For a given angular separation and spectral bandwidth, the performance of each starlight suppression system is characterized by the values of “raw” contrast (before image processing), off-axis (exoplanet) core throughput, and post-calibration contrast (the final 1-sigma detection limit of off-axis point sources, after image processing). Together, the first two parameters set the minimum exposure time required for observations of exoplanets at a given signal-to-noise, i.e., assuming perfect subtraction of background residuals down to the photon noise limit. In practice, residual starlight speckle fluctuations during the exposure will not be perfectly estimated nor subtracted, resulting in a finite post-calibrated contrast and exoplanet detection limit whatever the exposure time. To place the current laboratory results in the perspective of the future Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) mission, we simulate visible observations of a fiducial Earth/Sun twin system at 12 pc, assuming a 6 m (inscribed diameter) collecting aperture and a realistic end-to-end optical throughput. The exposure times required for broadband exo-Earth detection (20% bandwidth around λ=0.55 μm) and visible spectroscopic observations (R=70) are then computed assuming various levels of starlight suppression performance, including the values currently demonstrated in the laboratory. Using spectroscopic exposure time as a simple metric, our results point to key starlight suppression system design performance improvements and trades to be conducted in support of HWO’s exoplanet science capabilities. These trades may be explored via numerical studies, lab experiments, and high-contrast space-based observations and demonstrations.
The Super-pressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (SuperBIT) is a near-diffraction-limited 0.5m telescope that launched via NASA’s super-pressure balloon technology on April 16, 2023. SuperBIT achieved precise pointing control through the use of three nested frames in conjunction with an optical Fine Guidance System (FGS), resulting in an average image stability of 0.055” over 300-second exposures. The SuperBIT FGS includes a tip-tilt fast-steering mirror that corrects for jitter on a pair of focal plane star cameras. In this paper, we leverage the empirical data from SuperBIT’s successful 39-day stratospheric mission to inform the FGS design for the next-generation balloon-borne telescope. The Gigapixel Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (GigaBIT) is designed to be a 1.35m wide-field, high resolution imaging telescope, with specifications to extend the scale and capabilities beyond those of its predecessor SuperBIT. A description and analysis of the SuperBIT FGS will be presented along with methodologies for extrapolating this data to enhance GigaBIT’s FGS design and fine pointing control algorithm. We employ a systems engineering approach to outline and formalize the design constraints and specifications for GigaBIT’s FGS. GigaBIT, building on the SuperBIT legacy, is set to enhance high-resolution astronomical imaging, marking a significant advancement in the field of balloon-borne telescopes.
The Super-pressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (SuperBIT) was a diffraction limited 0.5m optical-to-near-UV telescope that was designed to study dark matter via cluster weak lensing. SuperBIT launched from Wanaka, New Zealand via NASA’s super-pressure balloon (SPB) technology on April 16, 2023 and remained in the stratosphere for 40 days. During the flight, SuperBIT obtained multi-band images for 30 science targets; data analysis to produce shear measurements for each target is ongoing. SuperBIT’s pointing system comprised three nested frames that stablized the entire telescope within 0.34 arcseconds rms, plus a back-end tip-tilt mirror that achieved focal plane image stability of 0.055 arcseconds rms during 300 second exposures. The power system reached full charge every day and never dropped below 30% at night. All components remained within their temperature limits, and actively controlled components remained within a standard deviation of ∼0.1K of their set point. In this paper we provide an overview of the flight trajectory behaviour and flight operations. The first two days of the flight were used for payload characterization and telescope alignment after which all night time was dedicated to science observations. Target scheduling was performed by an on-board “Autopilot” system which tracked available targets and prioritized completing targets over starting new targets. SuperBIT was the first balloon telescope to fly a Starlink dish to enable high-bandwidth communications with the payload. Prior to flight termination, two Data Retrieval System modules were deployed to provide a redundant data recovery method.
The Super Pressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (SuperBIT) is a diffraction limited 0.5m optical-to-near-UV telescope launched from New Zealand on NASA’s Super Pressure Balloon (SPB) on April 16, 2023 and flew for 45 nights. There were several communication links used during SuperBIT’s flight to communicate with the telescope from the ground, including Starlink, the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), Pilot, and Iridium. While Starlink bandwidth was suitable for TCP-based communications and downlinking, the other links were only capable of supporting UDP-based communications. We designed a file transfer algorithm that downlinked files while detecting missing packets in our downlink and requested them automatically, saving limited bandwidth. We also developed a similar mechanism to upload files as 200-byte commands to SuperBIT. In addition to the downlink and uplink programs, we also created an “autopilot” program to automate observations based on the location, time, and a prioritized list of targets. In this paper, we discuss the communication and observation challenges that were faced and strategies we used to overcome these challenges while operating SuperBIT.
Directly imaging Earth-like exoplanets around Sun-like stars with the future Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will require coronagraphic focal plane masks able to suppress starlight to the 1 × 10−10 contrast levels. Furthermore, to collect enough photons for broadband imaging and detection and to minimize the number of parallel channels for spectroscopic characterization, this level of contrast must be achieved across a 20% bandwidth. Scalar vortex coronagraphs show promise as a polarization-independent alternative to polarizationsensitive vector vortex coronagraphs, but still face chromatic limitations. New scalar vortex mask designs incorporate radial phase dimples to improve the broadband performance. We present initial manufacturing results of prototype masks of these designs including phase metrology and microscope images, in preparation for broadband chromatic characterization and starlight suppression measurements, to be taken on a high contrast imaging testbed. We also present a preliminary narrowband (2%) dark hole result achieving 1.8 × 10−8 average contrast from 3.5-10λ0/D on the High Contrast Spectroscopy Testbed at Caltech. This work aims to advance the technological maturity of scalar vortex coronagraphs as a viable option for consideration for HWO.
NASA is embarking on an ambitious program to develop the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) flagship to perform transformational astrophysics, as well as directly image ∼ 25 potentially Earth-like planets and spectroscopically characterize them for signs of life. This mission was recommended by Astro2020, which additionally recommended a new approach for flagship formulation based on increasing the scope and depth of early, pre-phase A trades and technology maturation. A critical capability of the HWO mission is the suppression of starlight. To inform future architecture trades, it is necessary to survey a wide range of candidate technologies, from the relatively mature ones such as the ones described in the LUVOIR and HabEx reports to the relatively new and emerging ones, which may lead to breakthrough performance. In this paper, we present a summary of an effort, funded by NASA’s Exoplanet Exoplaration Program (ExEP), to survey potential coronagraph options for HWO. In particular, our results consist of: (1) a database of different coronagraph designs sourced from the world-wide coronagraph community that are potentially compatible with HWO; (2) evaluation criteria, such as expected mission yields and feasibility of maturing to TRL 5 before phase A; (3) a unified modeling pipeline that processes the designs from (1) and outputs values for any machine-calculable criteria from (2); (4) assessments of maturity of designs, and other criteria that are not machine-calculable; (5) a table presenting an executive summary of designs and our results. While not charged to down-select or prioritize the different coronagraph designs, the products of this survey were designed to facilitate future HWO trade studies.
With the identified objective of enabling Earth-like exoplanets direct detection, and characterization of their atmospheric content, the Astro2020 report has placed the maturation of exoplanet imaging technology as a key priority for the coming decade. The High Contrast Spectroscopy Testbed (HCST) within the Caltech Exoplanet Technology laboratory serves as an in-air coronagraphic testbed demonstrator, integrating a high order deformable mirror for wavefront control and a vector vortex coronagraph (VVC). HCST has demonstrated excellent in-air contrast performance, achieving 1 × 10−8 raw contrast in broadband light, for both the apodized off-axis segmented pupil configuration and using single mode fiber planet injection. By introducing a low-order wavefront sensor (WFS) that utilizes either the in-band or out-of-band reflected light from the VVC coupled with a tip/tilt mirror, our objective is to address dynamic errors, thereby enhancing the wavefront stability of the experiment. We present in this proceeding the first steps towards a full tip/tilt control loop, starting with the optical design of our low-order camera. We performed a drift test overnight as a diagnostic of the coronagraphic performance stability and to possibly identify causes for the drift. Conclusions show that HCST demonstrate a remarkably stable environment to perform high-contrast imaging experiments, at the level of 1 × 10−8 contrast.
With the commencement of the development of the Habitable Worlds Observatory, it is imperative that the community has an understanding of (1) the stability requirements for the observatory to inform the design and (2) the gains expected from post-processing to inform observing scenarios and science yield estimates. We demonstrate that a previously developed, photon-efficient dark-zone maintenance (DZM) algorithm, that corrects quasi-static wavefront error drifts by using only science images, is compatible with traditional post-processing techniques. Further, we augment the DZM algorithm to estimate the coherent and incoherent light separately and introduce three novel post-processing techniques that leverage the concurrent estimation of coherent and incoherent light. With the DZM algorithm implemented on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), artificial drifts are injected as a random walk on a set of deformable mirrors (DMs) and are corrected with DZM. An injected fake planet is recovered in post-processing using a variety of techniques, such as angular differential imaging (ADI), and three novel techniques presented in this paper: incoherent accumulated imaging (IAI), software-based coherent differential imaging (CDI), and coherent reference differential imaging (CoRDI). All post-processing techniques can recover an injected planet at the same contrast level as the dark-zone background contrast (∼ 8 × 10−8), and the ADI technique is shown to recover a 4 × 10−8 planet in a 8 × 10−8 dark zone. For a space-based observatory, this would mean that if the instrument can reach a contrast level, we can maintain it and recover a planet that is undetectable in a single frame.
We present the final results of the Apodized Pupil Lyot Coronagraph (APLC) on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed, under NASA’s Strategic Astrophysics Technology program. The HiCAT testbed was developed over the past decade to enable a system-level demonstration of coronagraphy for exoplanet direct imaging with the future Habitable Wolds Observatory. HiCAT includes an active, segmented telescope simulator, a coronagraph, and metrology systems (Low-order and Mid-Order Zernike Wavefront Sensors, and Phase Retrieval camera). These results correspond to an off-axis (un-obscured) configuration, as was envisioned in the 2020 Decadal Survey Recommendations. Narrowband and broadband dark holes are generated using two continuous deformable mirrors (DM) to control high order wavefront aberrations, and low-order drifts can be further stabilized using the LOWFS loop. The APLC apodizers, manufactured using carbon nanotubes, were optimized for broadband performance and include the calibrated geometric aperture. The objectives of this SAT program were organized in three milestones to reach a system-like level demonstration of segmented-aperture coronagraphy, from static component demonstration to system-level demonstration under both natural and artificial disturbances. HiCAT is, to this date, the only testbed facility able to demonstrate high-contrast coronagraphy with a truly segmented aperture, as is required for the Habitable World Observatory, albeit limited to ambient conditions, corresponding to NASA’s Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 4. Results presented here include 6 × 10−8 (90% CI) contrast in 9% bandpass in a 360 deg dark hole with inner and outer working angles of 4.4λ/Dpupil and 11λ/Dpupil. Narrowband contrast (3% bandpass) reaches 2.4 × 10−8 (90% confidence interval). We first explore the open-loop stability of the entire system quantify the baseline testbed performance. Then we present dark hole stabilization using both high-order and low-order loops under both low-order and segment level drifts in narrow and broadband. We compare experimental data with that obtained by the end-to-end HiCAT simulator. We establish that current performance limitations are due to a combination of ambient conditions, detector and deformable mirrors noises (including quantization), and model mismatch.
KEYWORDS: Wavefronts, Wavefront sensors, Coronagraphy, Simulations, Electric fields, Cameras, Space telescopes, Signal to noise ratio, Exoplanets, Stars, Equipment, Imaging systems
Maintaining wavefront stability while directly imaging exoplanets over long exposure times is an ongoing problem in the field of high-contrast imaging. Robust and efficient high-order wavefront sensing and control systems are required for maintaining wavefront stability to counteract mechanical and thermal instabilities. Dark zone maintenance (DZM) has been proposed to address quasi-static optical aberrations and maintain high levels of contrast for coronagraphic space telescopes. To further experimentally test this approach for future missions, such as the Habitable Worlds Observatory, this paper quantifies the differences between the theoretical closed-loop contrast bounds and DZM performance on the High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed. The quantification of DZM is achieved by traversing important parameters of the system, specifically the total photon flux entering the aperture of the instrument, ranging from 1.85 × 106 to 1.85 × 108 photons per second, and the wavefront error drift rate, ranging from σdrift= 30−3000 pm/√ iteration, injected via the deformable mirror actuators. This is tested on the HiCAT testbed by injecting random walk drifts using two Boston Micromachines kilo deformable mirrors (DMs). The parameter scan is run on the HiCAT simulator and the HiCAT testbed where the corresponding results are compared to the model-based theoretical contrast bounds to analyze discrepancies. The results indicate an approximate one and a half order of magnitude difference between the theoretical bounds and testbed results.
We study a mid-order wavefront sensor (MOWFS) to address fine cophasing errors in exoplanet imaging with future large segmented aperture space telescopes. Observing Earth analogs around Sun-like stars requires contrasts down to 10−10 in visible light. One promising solution consists of producing a high-contrast dark zone in the image of an observed star. In a space observatory, this dark region will be altered by several effects, and among them, the small misalignments of the telescope mirror segments due to fine thermo-mechanical drifts. To correct for these errors in real time, we investigate a wavefront control loop based on a MOWFS with a Zernike sensor. Such a MOWFS was installed on the high-contrast imager for complex aperture telescopes (HiCAT) testbed in Baltimore in June 2023. The bench uses a 37-segment Iris-AO deformable mirror to mimic telescope segmentation and some wavefront control strategies to produce a dark zone with such an aperture. In this contribution, we first use the MOWFS to characterize the Iris-AO segment discretization steps. For the central segment, we find a minimal step of 125 ±31 pm. This result will help us to assess the contribution of the Iris-AO DM on the contrast in HiCAT. We then determine the detection limits of the MOWFS, estimating wavefront error amplitudes of 119 and 102 pm for 10 s and 1 min exposure time with a SNR of 3. These values inform us about the measurement capabilities of our wavefront sensor on the testbed. These preliminary results will be useful to provide insights on metrology and stability for exo-Earth observations with the Habitable Worlds Observatory.
SPIDER is a balloon-borne instrument designed to map the cosmic microwave background at degree-angular scales in the presence of Galactic foregrounds. Spider has mapped a large sky area in the Southern Hemisphere using more than 2000 transition-edge sensors (TESs) during two NASA Long Duration Balloon flights above the Antarctic continent. During its first flight in January 2015, Spider observed in the 95 GHz and 150 GHz frequency bands, setting constraints on the B-mode signature of primordial gravitational waves. Its second flight in the 2022-23 season added new receivers at 280 GHz, each using an array of TESs coupled to the sky through feedhorns formed from stacks of silicon wafers. These receivers are optimized to produce deep maps of polarized Galactic dust emission over a large sky area, providing a unique data set with lasting value to the field. In this work, we describe the instrument’s performance during SPIDER’s second flight.
KEYWORDS: Coronagraphy, Electric fields, Scalable video coding, Model based design, Wavefront sensors, Cameras, Spiral phase plates, Wavefronts, Design, Space telescopes
Future space telescope coronagraph instruments hinge on the integration of high-performance masks and precise wavefront sensing and control techniques to create dark holes essential for exoplanet detection. Recent advancements in wavefront control algorithms might exhibit differing performances depending on the coronagraph used. This research investigates three model-free and model-based algorithms in conjunction with either a vector vortex coronagraph or a scalar vortex coronagraph under identical laboratory conditions: pairwise probing with electric field conjugation, the self-coherent camera with electric field conjugation, and implicit electric field conjugation. We present experimental results in narrowband and broadband light from the In-Air Coronagraph Testbed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. We find that model-free dark hole digging methods achieve broadband contrasts comparable to model-based methods, and we highlight the calibration costs of model-free methods compared with model-based approaches. This study also reports the first time that electric field conjugation with the self-coherent camera has been applied for simultaneous multi-subband correction with a field stop. This study compares the advantages and disadvantages of each of these wavefront sensing and control algorithms with respect to their potential for future space telescopes.
Future space-based coronagraphs will rely critically on focal-plane wavefront sensing and control with deformable mirrors (DMs) to reach deep contrast by mitigating optical aberrations in the primary beam path. Until now, most focal-plane wavefront control algorithms have been formulated in terms of Jacobian matrices, which encode the predicted effect of each DM actuator on the focal-plane electric field. A disadvantage of these methods is that Jacobian matrices can be cumbersome to compute and manipulate, particularly when the number of DM actuators is large. Recently, we proposed a new class of focal-plane wavefront control algorithms that utilize gradient-based optimization with algorithmic differentiation to compute wavefront control solutions while avoiding the explicit computation and manipulation of Jacobian matrices entirely. In simulations using a coronagraph design for the proposed Large UV/Optical/Infrared Surveyor, we showed that our approach reduces overall CPU time and memory consumption compared to a Jacobian-based algorithm. Here, we expand on these results by implementing the proposed algorithm on the High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes tested at the Space Telescope Science Institute and present initial experimental results, demonstrating contrast suppression capabilities equivalent to Jacobian-based methods.
We report on experimental stabilization of low-order aberrations on a high-contrast testbed for exoplanet imaging, in up to 10% broadband light under natural and artificial drifts. The measurements are performed with a Zernike wavefront sensor using the light rejected by the focal plane mask of an apodized Lyot coronagraph. We conduct the experiments on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes testbed, with a segmented aperture and two continuous deformable mirrors. We study several use cases, from the stabilization of a pre-established dark hole to the concurrent combination with focal-plane wavefront sensing in the form of sequential pairwise sensing over several wavelengths.
NASA is about to embark on an ambitious program to develop a Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) flagship mission to directly image approximately 25 potentially Earth-like planets and spectroscopically characterize them for signs of life, as recommended by the Astro2020 decadal survey. In addition, Astro2020 recommended a new approach for flagship formulation, which involves increasing the scope and depth of early, pre-phase A trades and technology maturation, as part of the new Great Observatories Maturation Program (GOMAP). The critical capability of the HWO mission is starlight suppression. To inform future architecture trades, it is necessary to survey a wide range of technologies, from the relatively mature ones such as the ones described in the LUVOIR and HabEx reports, to the relatively new and emerging ones, which may lead to breakthrough performance. In this paper, we present an interim update on a new effort, initiated by NASA’s Exoplanet Exploration Program (ExEP), to survey coronagraph design options for HWO. We present a preliminary summary of the survey, including: (1) a current list of coronagraph design options; (2) proposed evaluation criteria, such as expected mission yields and feasibility of maturing to TRL5 by 2029; and (3) tools and methods which we are using to quantify evaluations of different designs. While not charged to down-select or prioritize the different coronagraph designs, this survey is expected to be valuable in informing future mission teams of coronagraph design options. All interested coronagraph researchers are welcome to participate in this survey by contacting the first two authors of this paper.
Due to the limited number of photons, directly imaging planets requires long integration times with a coronagraphic instrument. The wavefront must be stable on the same time scale, which is often difficult in space due to time-varying wavefront errors from thermal gradients and other mechanical instabilities. We discuss a laboratory demonstration of a photon-efficient dark zone maintenance (DZM) algorithm in the presence of representative wavefront error drifts. The DZM algorithm allows for simultaneous estimation and control while obtaining science images and removes the necessity of slewing to a reference star to regenerate the dark zone mid-observation of a target. The experiments are performed on the high-contrast imager for complex aperture telescopes at the Space Telescope Science Institute. The testbed contains an IrisAO segmented primary surrogate, a pair of continuous Boston Micromachine (BMC) kilo deformable mirrors (DMs), and a Lyot coronagraph. Both types of DMs are used to inject synthetic high-order wavefront aberration drifts into the system, possibly similar to those that would occur on telescope optics in a space observatory, which are then corrected by the BMC DMs via the DZM algorithm. In the presence of BMC, IrisAO, and all DM wavefront error drift, we demonstrate maintenance of the dark zone contrast (5.8−9.8 λ/Dlyot) at monochromatic levels of 8.5×10−8, 2.5×10−8, and 5.9×10−8, respectively. In addition, we show multiwavelength maintenance at a contrast of 7.0×10−7 over a 3% band centered at 650 nm (BMC drift). We demonstrate the potential of adaptive wavefront maintenance methods for future exoplanet imaging missions, and our demonstration significantly advances their readiness.
We present recent laboratory results demonstrating high-contrast coronagraphy for the future space-based large IR/Optical/Ultraviolet telescope recommended by the Decadal Survey. The High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed aims to implement a system-level hardware demonstration for segmented aperture coronagraphs with wavefront control. The telescope hardware simulator employs a segmented deformable mirror with 37 hexagonal segments that can be controlled in piston, tip, and tilt. In addition, two continuous deformable mirrors are used for high-order wavefront sensing and control. The low-order sensing subsystem includes a dedicated tip-tilt stage, a coronagraphic target acquisition camera, and a Zernike wavefront sensor that is used to measure and correct low-order aberration drifts. We explore the performance of a segmented aperture coronagraph both in “static” operations (limited by natural drifts and instabilities) and in “dynamic” operations (in the presence of artificial wavefront drifts added to the deformable mirrors), and discuss the estimation and control strategies used to reach and maintain the dark-zone contrast using our low-order wavefront sensing and control. We summarize experimental results that quantify the performance of the testbed in terms of contrast, inner/outer working angle and bandpass, and analyze limiting factors.
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Photons, Coronagraphy, Exoplanets, Electron multiplying charge coupled devices, Wavefronts, Space telescopes, Space operations
Directly imaging exoplanets requires long integration times when using a space-based coronagraphic instrument due to the small number of photons. Wavefront stability on the same timescale is of the utmost importance; a difficult feat in the presence of thermal and mechanical instabilities. In this paper, we demonstrate that dark zone maintenance (DZM) functions in the low signal-to-noise (SNR) regime similar to that expected for the Roman Space Telescope (RST) and the “large (∼6 m aperture) infrared/optical/ultraviolet (IR/O/UV) space telescope” recommended by the 2021 decadal survey. We develop low-photon experiments with tunable noise properties to provide a representative extrapolation. The experiments are performed on the High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). High-order wavefront error drifts are injected using a pair of kilo-deformable mirrors (DMs). The drifts are corrected using the DMs via the DZM algorithm; note that the current limiting factor for the DZM results is the air environment. We show that DZM can maintain a contrast of 5.3 × 10−8 in the presence of DM random walk drift with a low SNR.
Future space-based coronagraphs will rely critically on focal-plane wavefront sensing and control with deformable mirrors to reach deep contrast by mitigating optical aberrations in the primary beam path. Until now, most focal-plane wavefront control algorithms have been formulated in terms of Jacobian matrices, which encode the predicted effect of each deformable mirror actuator on the focal-plane electric field. A disadvantage of these methods is that Jacobian matrices can be cumbersome to compute and manipulate, particularly when the number of deformable mirror actuators is large. Recently, we proposed a new class of focal-plane wavefront control algorithms that utilize gradient-based optimization with algorithmic differentiation to compute wavefront control solutions while avoiding the explicit computation and manipulation of Jacobian matrices entirely. In simulations using a coronagraph design for the proposed Large UV/Optical/Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), we showed that our approach reduces overall CPU time and memory consumption compared to a Jacobian-based algorithm. Here, we expand on these results by implementing the proposed algorithm on the High Contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) and present initial experimental and numerical results.
Due to the limited number of photons, directly imaging planets requires long integration times with a coronagraphic instrument. The wavefront must be stable on the same time scale, which is often difficult in space due to thermal variations and other mechanical instabilities. In this paper, we discuss the implications on future space mission observing conditions of our recent laboratory demonstration of a dark hole maintenance (DHM) algorithm. The experiments are performed on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). The testbed contains a segmented aperture, a pair of deformable mirrors (DMs), and a lyot coronagraph. The segmented aperture injects high order zernike wavefront aberration drifts into the system which are then corrected by the DMs downstream via the DHM algorithm. We investigate various drift modes including segmented aperture drift, all DMs drift, and drift correction at multiple wavelengths.
The characterization of exoplanets’ atmospheres using direct imaging spectroscopy requires high-contrast over a wide wavelength range. We study a recently proposed focal plane wavefront estimation algorithm that exclusively uses broadband images to estimate the electric field. This approach therefore reduces the complexity and observational overheads compared to traditional single wavelength approaches. The electric field is estimated as an incoherent sum of monochromatic intensities with the pair-wise probing technique. This paper covers the detailed implementation of the algorithm and an application to the High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed with the goal to compare the performance between the broadband and traditional narrowband filter approaches.
We present recent laboratory results demonstrating high-contrast coronagraphy for future space-based large segmented telescopes such as the Large UV, Optical, IR telescope (LUVOIR) mission concept studied by NASA. The High-contrast Imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) testbed aims to implement a system-level hardware demonstration for segmented aperture coronagraphs with wavefront control. The telescope hardware simulator employs a segmented deformable mirror with 36 hexagonal segments that can be controlled in piston, tip, and tilt. In addition, two continuous deformable mirrors are used for high-order wavefront sensing and control. The low-order sensing subsystem includes a dedicated tip-tilt stage, a coronagraphic target acquisition camera, and a Zernike wavefront sensor that is used to measure low-order aberration drifts. We explore the performance of a segmented aperture coronagraph both in “static” operations (limited by natural drifts and instabilities) and in “dynamic” operations (in the presence of artificial wavefront drifts added to the deformable mirrors), and discuss the estimation and control strategies used to reach and maintain the dark zone contrast. We summarize experimental results that quantify the performance of the testbed in terms of contrast, inner/outer working angle and bandpass, and analyze limiting factors by comparing against our end-to-end models.
Due to the limited number of photons, directly imaging planets requires long integration times. The wavefront must be stable on the same time scale which is often difficult in space due to thermal variations and vibrations. In this paper, we discuss the results of implementing a dark hole maintenance (DHM) algorithm (Pogorelyuk et. al. 2019)1 on the High-contrast imager for Complex Aperture Telescopes (HiCAT) at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). The testbed contains a pair of deformable mirrors (DMs) and a lyot coronagraph. The algorithm uses an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and DM dithering to predict the drifting electric field in the dark hole along with Electric Field Conjugation to cancel out the drift. The DM dither introduces phase diversity which ensures the EKF converges to the correct value. The DHM algorithm maintains an initial contrast of 8.5 x 10-8 for 6 hrs in the presence of the DM actuator random walk drift with a standard deviation of 1:7 x 10-3 nm/s..
In this work we describe upgrades to the Spider balloon-borne telescope in preparation for its second flight, currently planned for December 2021. The Spider instrument is optimized to search for a primordial B-mode polarization signature in the cosmic microwave background at degree angular scales. During its first flight in 2015, Spider mapped ~10% of the sky at 95 and 150 GHz. The payload for the second Antarctic flight will incorporate three new 280 GHz receivers alongside three refurbished 95- and 150 GHz receivers from Spider's first flight. In this work we discuss the design and characterization of these new receivers, which employ over 1500 feedhorn-coupled transition-edge sensors. We describe pre-flight laboratory measurements of detector properties, and the optical performance of completed receivers. These receivers will map a wide area of the sky at 280 GHz, providing new information on polarized Galactic dust emission that will help to separate it from the cosmological signal.
Balloon-borne astronomy is a unique tool that allows for a level of image stability and significantly reduced atmospheric interference without the often prohibitive cost and long development time-scale that are characteristic of space-borne facility-class instruments. The Super-pressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (SuperBIT) is a wide-field imager designed to provide 0.02" image stability over a 0.5 degree field-of-view for deep exposures within the visible-to-near-UV (300-900 um). As such, SuperBIT is a suitable platform for a wide range of balloon-borne observations, including solar and extrasolar planetary spectroscopy as well as resolved stellar populations and distant galaxies. We report on the overall payload design and instrumentation methodologies for SuperBIT as well as telescope and image stability results from two test flights. Prospects for the SuperBIT project are outlined with an emphasis on the development of a fully operational, three-month science flight from New Zealand in 2020.
Balloon-borne experiments present unique thermal design challenges, which are a combination of those present for both space and ground experiments. Radiation and conduction are the predominant heat transfer mechanisms with convection effects being minimal and difficult to characterize at 35-40 km. This greatly constrains the thermal design options and makes predicting flight thermal behaviour very difficult. Due to the limited power available on long duration balloon flights, efficient heater control is an important factor in minimizing power consumption. SuperBIT, or the Super-Pressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope, aims to study weak gravitational lensing using a 0.5m modified Dall-Kirkham telescope capable of achieving 0.02" stability1 and capturing deep exposures from visible to near UV wavelengths. To achieve the theoretical stratospheric diffraction-limited resolution of 0.25",2 mirror deformation gradients must be kept to within 20 nm. The thermal environment must be stable on time scales of an hour and the thermal gradients on the telescope must be minimized. During its 2018 test-flight, SuperBIT will implement two types of thermal parameter solvers: one for post-flight characterization and one for in-flight control. The payload has 85 thermistors as well as pyranometers and far-infrared sensors which will be used post-flight to further understand heat transfer in the stratosphere. This document describes the in-flight thermal control method, which predicts the thermal circuit of components and then auto-tunes the heater PID gains. Preliminary ground testing shows the ability to control the components to within 0.01 K.
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