Loose abrasive grinding was performed on a wide range of optical workpiece materials [single crystals of Al2O3 (sapphire), SiC, Y3Al5O12 (YAG), CaF2, and LiB3O5 (LBO); a SiO2-Al2O3-P2O5-Li2O glass-ceramic (Zerodur); and glasses of SiO2 : TiO2 (ULE), SiO2 (fused silica), and P2O5-Al2O3-K2O-BaO (phosphate)]. Using the magneto rheological finishing (MRF) taper wedge technique (where a wedge was polished on each of the ground workpieces and the resulting samples were appropriately chemically etched), the subsurface mechanical damage (SSD) characteristics were measured. The SSD depth for most of the workpiece materials was found to scale as E11/2 / H1, where E1 is the elastic modulus and H1 is the hardness of the workpiece. This material scaling is the same as that for the growth of lateral cracks, suggesting that lateral cracks are a dominant source for SSD rather than radial/median cracks, as previously proposed. Utilizing the SSD depth data from both this study and others, semiempirical relationships have been formulated, which allows for estimating the SSD depth as a function of workpiece material and important grinding parameters (such as abrasive size and applied pressure).
High-energy laser systems are limited by the onset and subsequent growth of damage on constituent optics. This has been extensively studied for optics comprised of fused silica, but less so for other common optical materials. There are very few materials as well characterized as fused silica and, in this work, we explore the growth characteristics of other widely used optical materials with a range of physical parameters, namely sapphire, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, calcium fluoride, and compare them to fused silica. Since current understanding is that material fracture must be present before the fluences used in ns laser systems might cause a surface flaw to grow, we have chosen to study flaws on the exit surfaces created with a Vickers indenter. A range of indenter forces were selected that would produce flaw sizes typical of those that have been seen in laser created damage. Samples with arrays of indents were tested in the in the Optical Science Laser (OSL), a master oscillator power amplifier system, with a front-end pulse shaping capability able to deliver relevant fluences with a large area beam. Samples were tested in vacuum at 351 nm and at atmosphere at 1053 nm with a single shot fired every 45 minutes exposing multiple sites simultaneously. High resolution images of each flaw were taken after every shot to document changes. Additional tests at 1064 nm were conducted of individual sites at a 60 Hz rep rate in the Gigashot Optical Laser Damage (GOLD) system. The probability of growth at 3ω at 5.5 J/cm2 is near 100% for both calcium fluoride and fused silica about 50% for the other materials. The growth rates at 3ω at from 5 to 8 J/cm2 are comparable for all but potassium dihydrogen phosphate which are better than five times lower. At 1ω all the materials had about a factor of five increase in the threshold for growth.
Additive manufacturing offers new routes to lightweight optics inaccessible by conventional methods by providing a broader range of reconciled functionality, form factor, and cost. Predictive lattice design combined with the ability to 3D print complex structures allows for the creation of low-density metamaterials with high global and local stiffness and tunable response to static and dynamic loading. This capacity provides a path to fabrication of lightweight optical supports with tuned geometries and mechanical properties. Our approach involves the simulation and optimization of lightweight lattices for anticipated stresses due to polishing and mounting loads via adaptive mesh refinement. The designed lattices are 3D printed using large area projection microstereolithography (LAPuSL), coated with a metallic plating to improve mechanical properties, and bonded to a thin (1.25 mm) fused silica substrate. We demonstrate that this lightweight assembly can be polished to a desired flatness using convergent polishing, and subsequently treated with a reflective coating.
*This work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 within the LDRD program. LLNL-ABS-738806.
Controlling laser damage is essential for reliable and cost-effective operation of high energy laser systems. We will
review important optical damage precursors in silica up to UV fluences as high as 45J/cm2 (3ns) along with studies of
the damage mechanisms involved and processes to mitigate damage precursors. We have found that silica surface
damage is initiated by nano-scale precursor absorption followed by thermal coupling to the silica lattice and formation of
a laser-supported absorption front. Residual polishing compound and defect layers on fracture surfaces are primarily
responsible for optic damage below about 10J/cm2; they can be mitigated by an optimized oxide etch processes. At
fluences above about 10J/cm2, precipitates of trace impurities are responsible for damage; they can be mitigated by
eliminating the chances of impurity precipitation following wet chemical processing. Using these approaches, silica
damage densities can be reduced by many orders of magnitude allowing large increases in the maximum operating
fluences these optics see.
Previous studies have identified two significant precursors of laser damage on fused silica surfaces at fluences <35 J/cm2: photoactive impurities from polishing and surface fractures. We evaluate isothermal heating as a means of remediating the defect structure associated with surface fractures. Vickers indentations are applied to silica surfaces at loads between 0.5 and 10 N, creating fracture networks. The indentations are characterized before and following thermal annealing under various time and temperature conditions using confocal time-resolved photo-luminescence (CTP) imaging, and R/1 damage testing with 3-ns, 355-nm laser pulses. Improvements in the damage thresholds with reductions in CTP intensity are observed at temperatures well below the glass transition temperature (Tg). The damage threshold on 0.5-N indentations improves from <8 to >35 J/cm2 after annealing at approximately 750°C. Larger fracture networks require longer or higher temperature treatment to achieve similar results. At an annealing temperature >1100°C, optical microscopy indicates morphological changes in some of the fractures surrounding the indentations, although remnants of the original fractures are still observed. We demonstrate the potential of using isothermal annealing to improve the laser damage resistance of silica optics, and provide a means of further understanding the physics of optical damage and mitigation.
Substrate scratches can limit the laser resistance of multilayer mirror coatings on high-peak-power laser systems. To
date, the mechanism by which substrate surface defects affect the performance of coating layers under high power
laser irradiation is not well defined. In this study, we combine experimental approaches with theoretical simulations
to delineate the correlation between laser damage resistance of coating layers and the physical properties of the
substrate surface defects including scratches. A focused ion beam technique is used to reveal the morphological
evolution of coating layers on surface scratches. Preliminary results show that coating layers initially follow the
trench morphology on the substrate surface, and as the thickness increases, gradually overcoat voids and planarize
the surface. Simulations of the electrical-field distribution of the defective layers using the finite-difference timedomain
(FDTD) method show that field intensification exists mostly near the top surface region of the coating near
convex focusing structures. The light intensification could be responsible for the reduced damage threshold.
Damage testing under 1064 nm, 3 ns laser irradiation over coating layers on substrates with designed scratches show
that damage probability and threshold of the multilayer depend on substrate scratch density and width. Our
preliminary results show that damage occurs on the region of the coating where substrate scratches reside and
etching of the substrate before coating does not seem to improve the laser damage resistance.
Current methods for the manufacture of optical components inevitably leaves a variety of sub-surface imperfections
including scratches of varying lengths and widths on even the finest finishes. It has recently been determined that these
finishing imperfections are responsible for the majority of laser-induced damage for fluences typically used in ICF class
lasers. We have developed methods of engineering subscale parts with a distribution of scratches mimicking those found
on full scale fused silica parts. This much higher density of scratches provides a platform to measure low damage
initiation probabilities sufficient to describe damage on large scale optics. In this work, damage probability per unit
scratch length was characterized as a function of initial scratch width and post fabrication processing including acidbased
etch mitigation processes. The susceptibility of damage initiation density along scratches was found to be strongly
affected by the post etching material removal and initial scratch width. We have developed an automated processing
procedure to document the damage initiations per width and per length of theses scratches. We show here how these
tools can be employed to provide predictions of the performance of full size optics in laser systems operating at 351 nm.
In addition we use these tools to measure the growth rate of a damage site initiated along a scratch and compare this to
the growth measured on an isolated damage site.
Using high-sensitivity confocal time-resolved photoluminescence (CTP) techniques, we report an ultra-fast
photoluminescence (40ps-5ns) from impurity-free surface flaws on fused silica, including polished, indented or
fractured surfaces of fused silica, and from laser-heated evaporation pits. This fast photoluminescence (PL) is not
associated with slower point defect PL in silica which has characteristic decay times longer than 5ns. Fast PL is
excited by the single photon absorption of sub-band gap light, and is especially bright in fractures. Regions which
exhibit fast PL are strongly absorptive well below the band gap, as evidenced by a propensity to damage with 3.5eV
ns-scale laser pulses, making CTP a powerful non-destructive diagnostic for laser damage in silica. The use of CTP
to provide insights into the nature of damage precursors and to help develop and evaluate new damage mitigation
strategies will be presented.
There is a longstanding, and largely unexplained, correlation between the laser damage susceptibility
of optical components and both the surface quality of the optics, and the presence of near surface
fractures in an optic. In the present work, a combination of acid leaching, acid etching, and confocal
time resolved photoluminescence (CTP) microscopy has been used to study laser damage initiation
at indentation sites. The combination of localized polishing and variations in indentation loads
allows one to isolate and characterize the laser damage susceptibility of densified, plastically flowed
and fractured fused silica. The present results suggest that: 1) laser damage initiation and growth are
strongly correlated with fracture surfaces, while densified and plastically flowed material is
relatively benign, and 2) fracture events result in the formation of an electronically defect rich
surface layer which promotes energy transfer from the optical beam to the glass matrix.
Fluoride-based wet chemical etching of fused silica optical components is useful to open up surface fractures for
diagnostic purposes, to create surface topology, and as a possible mitigation technique to remove damaged material. To
optimize the usefulness of etching, it is important to understand how the morphology of etched features changes as a
function of the amount of material removed. In this study, we present two geometric etch models that describe the
surface topology evolution as a function of the amount etched. The first model, referred to as the finite-difference etch
model, represents the surface as an array of points in space where at each time-step the points move normal to the local
surface. The second model, referred to as the surface area-volume model, more globally describes the surface evolution
relating the volume of material removed to the exposed surface area. These etch models predict growth and coalescence
of surface fractures such as those observed on scratches and ground surfaces. For typical surface fractures, simulations
show that the transverse growth of the cracks at long etch times scales with the square root of etch time or the net
material removed in agreement with experiment. The finite-difference etch model has also been applied to more complex
structures such as the etching of a CO2 laser-mitigated laser damage site. The results indicate that etching has little
effect on the initial morphology of this site implying little change in downstream scatter and modulation characteristics
upon exposure to subsequent high fluence laser light. In the second part of the study, the geometric etch model is
expanded to include fluid dynamics and mass transport. This later model serves as a foundation for understanding
related processes such as the possibility of redeposition of etch reaction products during the etching, rinsing or drying
processes.
Over the past two years we have developed MRF tools and procedures to manufacture large-aperture (430 X
430 mm) continuous phase plates (CPPs) that are capable of operating in the infrared portion (1053 nm) of
high-power laser systems. This is accomplished by polishing prescribed patterns of continuously varying
topographical features onto finished plano optics using MRF imprinting techniques. We have been successful in
making, testing, and using large-aperture CPPs whose topography possesses spatial periods as low as 4 mm and
surface peak-to-valleys as high as 8.6 microns. Combining this application of MRF technology with advanced MRF
finishing techniques that focus on ultraviolet laser damage resistance makes it potentially feasible to
manufacture large-aperture CPPs that can operate in the ultraviolet (351 nm) without sustaining laser-induced
damage. In this paper, we will discuss the CPP manufacturing process and the results of 351-nm/3-nsec
equivalent laser performance experiments conducted on large-aperture CPPs manufactured using advanced
MRF protocols.
Managing subsurface damage during the shaping process and removing subsurface damage during the polishing process is essential in the production of low damage density optical components, such as those required for use on high peak power lasers. Removal of subsurface damage, during the polishing process, requires polishing to a depth which is greater than the depth of the residual cracks present following the shaping process. To successfully manage, and ultimately remove subsurface damage, understanding the distribution and character of fractures in the subsurface region introduced during fabrication process is important. We have characterized the depth and morphology of subsurface fractures present following fixed abrasive and loose abrasive grinding processes. At shallow depths lateral cracks and an overlapping series of trailing indentation fractures were found to be present. At greater depths, subsurface damage consists of a series of trailing indentation fractures. The area density of trailing fractures changes as a function of depth, however the length and shape of individual cracks remain nearly constant for a given grinding process. We have developed and applied a model to interpret the depth and crack length distributions of subsurface surface damage in terms of key variables including abrasive size and load.
Understanding the behavior of fractures and subsurface damage in the processes used during optic fabrication plays a key role in determining the final quality of the optical surface finish. During the early stages of surface preparation, brittle grinding processes induce fractures at or near an optical surface whose range can extend from depths of a few μm to hundreds of μm depending upon the process and tooling being employed. Controlling the occurrence, structure, and propagation of these sites during subsequent grinding and polishing operations is highly desirable if one wishes to obtain high-quality surfaces that are free of such artifacts. Over the past year, our team has made significant strides in developing a diagnostic technique that combines magnetorheological finishing (MRF) and scanning optical microscopy to measure and characterize subsurface damage in optical materials. The technique takes advantage of the unique nature of MRF to polish a prescribed large-area wedge into the optical surface without propagating existing damage or introducing new damage. The polished wedge is then analyzed to quantify subsurface damage as a function of depth from the original surface. Large-area measurement using scanning optical microscopy provides for improved accuracy and reliability over methods such as the COM ball-dimple technique. Examples of the technique's use will be presented that illustrate the behavior of subsurface damage in fused silica that arises during a variety of intermediate optical fabrication process steps.
We have developed an experimental technique that combines magnetorheological finishing (MRF) and microscopy to examine fractures and/or artifacts in optical materials. The technique can be readily used to provide access to, and interrogation of, a selected segment of a fracture or object that extends beneath the surface. Depth slicing, or cross-sectioning at selected intervals, further allows the observation and measurement of the three-dimensional nature of the sites and the generation of volumetric representations that can be used to quantify shape and depth, and to understand how they were created, how they interact with surrounding material, and how they may be eliminated or mitigated.
The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is a stadium-sized high-energy (1.8 megajoule) / high-peak power (500 terawatt) laser system, which will utilize over 3000 meter-size Nd-doped metaphosphate glasses as its gain media. The current production status, the selection criteria of individual slabs for specific beam line locations, and some recent technical advances are reviewed. The glass blanks are manufactured by a novel continuous glass melting process, and the finished slabs are then prepared by epoxy bonding a Cu-doped phosphate glass edge cladding and by advanced finishing techniques. To date, nearly 3400 slab equivalents have been melted, 2600 have been rough-cut to blanks, 1200 have been finished, and 144 have been installed in NIF. A set of selection rules, which are designed to optimize laser performance (e.g., maintain gain balance between beam lines and minimize beam walkoff) and to maximize glass lifetime with respect to Pt damage site growth, have been established for assigning individual slabs to specific beam line locations. Recent technical advances for amplifier slab production, which include: 1) minimizing surface pitting (hazing) after final finishing; 2) minimizing humidity-induced surface degradation (weathering) upon storage and use; and 3) preventing mounting-induced surface fractures upon installation, have contributed in improving the laser glass quality.
Rates of dehydroxylation of two Nd-doped metaphosphate laser glasses (LG-770 and LHG-8) are measured and modeled. Glass melts ranging in size from 100 g to 2.8 kg were bubbled with O2 containing various H2O partial pressures (PH(subscript 2O)) and with O2/Cl2 mixtures at temperatures ranging from 925 - 1300 degree(s)C. The OH content in the glass was measured by monitoring the OH absorption at 3.333 micrometers at various bubbling times. The OH removal by inert gas bubbling (e.g. O2 bubbling) is governed by the transport (diffusion) of OH to the glass liquid/vapor interface and by the chemical equilibrium between OH at the surface and H2O in the gas phase. The equilibrium OH content in glass melts bubbled with O2 containing different PH(subscript 2O) varies as PH(subscript 2O)1/2.
Laser-induced damage on the tensile side of vacuum-barrier fused silica optics can result in catastrophic fracture. This fracture can lead to two possible modes of failure: a benign failure resulting in a slow air leak into the vacuum chamber or an implosion. In previous work, we measured fracture in round vacuum windows and lenses and proposed a 'fail-safe' design that would insure the benign failure mode by fracturing into only two parts, thus eliminating the possibility of implosion. In this paper we extend the previous work to include square vacuum-barrier windows and lenses.
Laser induced damage, that initiates catastrophic fracture, has been observed in large, fused silica lenses that also serve as vacuum barriers in high-fluence positions on the Nova and Beamlet lasers. In nearly all cases damage occurs on the vacuum side of the lens. The damage can lead to catastrophic crack growth if the flaw size exceeds the critical flaw size for SiO2. If the elastic stored energy in the lens in high enough, the lens will fracture into many pieces resulting in an implosion. The consequences of such an implosion can be severe, particularly for large vacuum systems. Three parameters control the degree of fracture in the vacuum barrier window: (1) the elastic stored energy, (2) the ratio of the window thickness to flaw depth and (3) secondary crack propagation. Fracture experiments have ben carried our on 15-cm diameter fused silica windows that contain surface flaws caused by laser damage. The results of these experiments, combined with data from window failures on Beamlet and Nova have been sued to develop design criteria for a 'fail-safe' lens. Specifically the window must be made thick enough such that the peak tensile stress is less than 500 psi and the corresponding ratio of the thickness to critical flaw size is less than 6. Under these conditions a properly mounted window, upon failure, will break into only tow pieces and will not implode. One caveat to these design criteria is that the air leak through the window before secondary crack growth occurs. Finite element stress calculations of a window before and immediately following fracture into two pieces show that the elastic stored energy is redistributed if the fragments 'lock' in place and thereby bridge the opening. In such cases, the peak stresses at the flaw site can increase leading to further crack growth.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.