We have been developing a transmission soft x-ray microscope utilizing Wolter mirrors at a soft x-ray beamline of SACLA. We upgraded the soft x-ray microscope to enable simultaneous visible light imaging and soft x-ray imaging. To achieve this, we divided the annular apertures of the condenser and objective Wolter mirrors into two sections, allowing for soft x-ray imaging with one part and visible light imaging with the other. Our microscopy allows imaging cells with fluorescent labels by visible light while observing them with water window soft x-rays, which is useful for studying living cells.
Coherent or partially coherent X-rays have recently been utilized in beamlines at advanced synchrotron radiation facilities and X-ray free-electron lasers. Wave-optical and ray-tracing calculations are widely employed to predict intensity and phase distributions of X-ray beams when designing new beamlines. Both calculation methods have
their respective advantages and disadvantages. In this presentation, we will compare the results of calculations in optical systems that use X-ray focusing mirrors, and introduce a method for combining these two methods. Furthermore, we will discuss the applications of this method for calculating partially coherent X-rays.
High-precision monolithic mirrors are used in the soft x-ray beamlines of synchrotron radiation facilities. A figure measurement technique is essential for the fabrication of high-precision mirrors. In recent years, mirrors of various shapes have been proposed, and a versatile figure measurement technique is required. Tactile measurements are one of the most suitable methods for evaluating the figure errors of x-ray mirrors with steep and complex geometries. Because a tactile measurement probe has a wide range of measurable depths and angles and can eliminate measurement errors depending on the sample curvature, tactile measurements have been applied to the fabrication of monolithic mirrors for soft x-ray focusing. In this study, a soft x-ray focusing mirror with concave and convex freeform surfaces on its monolithic substrate was fabricated based on tactile measurements for figure correction. The high- and mid-spatial-frequency roughness were 0.14-0.17 nm and 0.8 nm in RMS, respectively. Furthermore, the figure error evaluated using the tactile measurement was 2.64 nm in RMS.
For application in the soft X-ray region, focusing mirrors having a steep shape with small radii of curvature of several tens to hundreds of millimeters and a deep sag of a few millimeters have recently been designed. These mirrors are difficult to fabricate with high accuracy owing to the challenges in figure measurement. In this study, we demonstrate the surface measurement of a flat substrate and soft X-ray Wolter mirror using a tactile profiler. The comparison with a stitching interferometry image of the flat substrate showed an agreement of mid- to high-spatial-frequency errors. The tactile measurement of the Wolter mirror exhibited a root-mean-square figure error of 2.49 nm.
A Kirkpatrick-Baez (KB) mirror is a reflective focusing device that sequentially positions a pair of crossed mirrors in a grazing-incidence setup. Typically, this type of device offers a relatively long working distance of 20 mm or longer, which allows specimens to be installed in various configurations. However, there is a tradeoff between the long working distance and both the numerical aperture and demagnification factor, resulting in drawbacks for KB mirrors for a sub-micron focus size in a soft-X-ray region. This research explores an ultrashort KB mirror composed of 2- and 8-mm-long mirrors with focal lengths of 2 and 8 mm, respectively. Its demagnification is designed to be up to 10000 and its focus size can theoretically be below 50 nm at a photon energy of 1 keV. To demonstrate an X-ray nanoprobe based on this focusing device for X-ray microscopy, the low energy X-ray fluorescence (LEXRF) technique is incorporated into the focusing system. The aim of this LEXRF system is to observe light elements in biological specimens. After X-ray fluorescence yields were estimated, the experimental setup was examined for a forward- and side-scattering configuration. Preliminary studies examined the fluorescence detector performance and the fluorescence detection of biological and pharmaceutical specimens in the traditional backscattering configuration. Compared with diffractive focusing devices, which condense approximately 10% of the incident X-rays, the reflective ultrashort KB mirror can benefit LEXRF by more efficiently collecting X-rays to its nanoprobe, thus enhancing the fluorescence signals from specimens.
Wolter mirrors work as imaging optics of X-ray telescopes. We have been developing a Wolter mirror for the FOXSI-4 project in 2023 using a high-precision Ni electroforming process. The figure accuracy of mirrors is one of the main factors determining the spatial resolution in X-ray imaging. In this study, we optimized the electrodeposition conditions from the viewpoint of the uniformity of film thickness. The simulation model was developed to correctly predict the film thickness distribution before fabrication, whose parameters and boundary conditions were determined through electrochemical experiments. The model calculates the distribution of current density on the surface of the cathode by finite element analysis. In this paper, we report the current status of the electroforming process specializing in Wolter mirrors in X-ray telescopes.
Axisymmetric mirrors, such as ellipsoidal mirrors, are used as nanoscale focusing elements for soft X-rays. High figure accuracy is required to prevent distortion of the wavefronts of reflected X-ray beams. Although a mirror fabrication technique based on electroforming has been developed, figure correction of the inner surface of the mirror with most of the conventional machining methods is difficult. In this study, we constructed a processing system specialized for the inner surface of axisymmetric mirrors. This system is based on a fluid jet processing method. A fluid containing abrasives flows out from a very small nozzle placed inside the mirror and impinges against its inner surface. The surface layer of the mirror is locally removed with a spatial resolution of about 2 mm using this system. Abrasives used in our system contain organic resin and silica; therefore, they have a sufficient machining rate and a good dispersibility in water. We also applied X-ray ptychography to measure the 3-dimensional figure error of the mirror surface. We performed numerically controlled processing and measured the surface figure of the mirror with both a contact-type roundness measurement machine and a soft X-ray ptychographic system. The result of X-ray ptychography agreed well with the profile obtained by contact measurement.
In the soft x-ray region, the demand for focusing x-rays into a spot of nanometer order size with high efficiency has been increasing. Ellipsoidal and Wolter mirrors, which are representative of ideal reflective focusing optics for soft x-rays, have optical advantages such as achromaticity, large acceptance, high efficiency and high numerical aperture, which are suitable to fully utilize the next-generation synchrotron light sources. Recently, the fabrication process of soft x-ray mirrors of replication type using nickel electroforming was developed, and several focusing experiments with ellipsoidal and Wolter mirrors were reported. The experimental environment of these mirrors, however, was limited due to the magnetism of the nickel body. We are currently developing the diamagnetic mirror fabrication process using copper electroforming technique to expand its application. In order to prevent oxidization of the replicated surface, this study demonstrates electroforming of copper mirror that has the reflective surface of gold. The surface roughness replicated from a flat substrate was 0.321 nm in root-mean-square in 0.1 mm × 0.1 mm area. The circularity of the gold inner surface of a copper electroformed mirror was evaluated at 26 nm in peak-to-valley.
We had been developing replicated aluminum foil optics for previous missions such as ASCA, Suzaku, and, Hitomi. This sort of X-ray optics can be lighter but the angular resolution is limited to on the order of arcminutes. Thus, to improve the angular resolution with light performances, we have started developing electro formed X-ray optics. Electroforming is a technology that can transfer to a substrate with high accuracy by plating the nano-level structure of a super-precision master and makes it easier to fabricate Wolter type-I shaped two-stage full-shell mirrors.
For many years, Wolter mirrors have been used as imaging elements in X-ray telescopes. The shape error of Wolter mirrors fabricated by replicating the shape of a mandrel originates from the replication error in electroforming. We have been developing an X-ray focusing mirror for synchrotron radiation X-rays, as well as a high-precision electroforming process. In this paper, we report on the application of the advanced electroforming process to the fabrication of Wolter mirrors for the FOXSI Sun observation project. We also discuss the figuring accuracy of the mandrel.
Electroforming replication is an essential technique for fabricating full-shell, grazing-incidence mirrors for use in space, laboratories, and synchrotron experiments. For X-ray astronomy, a nickel electroforming replication process was developed and is used to produce lightweight and high-resolution X-ray mirrors. In addition, the electroforming process for fabricating X-ray mirrors for use in synchrotron experiments has undergone remarkable development over the past decade. We expect that the use of the ground-based electroforming replication process for the production of optics for Xray astronomy will lead to further improvements in the performance of X-ray telescopes. This paper describes our ongoing development efforts in the nickel-electroforming replication process, including the results of a pilot study.
High-end precision optics are generally manufactured through traditional processes, which produce unique shapes and smooth surfaces, and the modern figure correction process. Particularly for soft x-ray regions, the demand for accurate free-form optics with complex and steep shapes has been increasing recently. Wolter mirrors and ring-focusing mirrors are representative of these types of optics, which are expected to be the next-generation devices for soft x-ray microscopy. To fabricate these mirrors with sufficient accuracy to achieve ideal optical performances, both traditional and modern processes must be optimized ad hoc. In this study, we apply the high-precision lens fabrication process to a monolithic Wolter mirror and a ring-focusing mirror. The surface measurement results of the mirrors suggest that it is possible to fabricate single-nanometer accurate soft x-ray mirrors with steep shapes in complex geometries.
Since a replication-type of the Wolter mirror is obtained as the negative shape of its mandrel via shape replication represented by electroforming, a high precision mandrel fabrication process is essential for nano-focusing with the mirror at synchrotron radiation facilities. In particular, three-dimensional shape measurement technique for the mandrel is required. In this study, we developed the high precision three-dimensional shape measurement system dedicated for the Wolter mandrels. First, the shape error distributions of the ellipsoidal surface and the hyperboloid surface were measured independently. The geometrical relation between the surfaces was constrained by the longitudinal profiles which include the intersection measured by a profilometer. The diameter was also measured and finally the three-dimensional shape distribution was obtained. Applying this system, we fabricated a high precision Wolter mandrel.
Focusing x-rays is a key technology for x-ray microscopic techniques. In a soft-x-ray region, focusing systems with achromaticity and a high numerical aperture have long been desired as a substitute for Fresnel zone plates. Ellipsoidal mirrors are promising focusing optics for such systems. However, two technical problems have to be overcome to allow practical application of these mirrors: their low efficiency due to their hollow shapes and strict requirements for their alignment. A novel focusing system using two reflective mirrors was proposed for this purpose. The downstream mirror is a quasi-Wolter mirror with a hollow shape similar to an ellipsoidal mirror and has a high numerical aperture of more than 0.1. The tolerance of the setting angle error of the quasi-Wolter mirror is significantly large compared to that of the ellipsoidal mirror because a quasi-Wolter mirror reflects the incident rays twice. The upstream mirror is a ring-focusing mirror, which produces an x-ray beam with a ring-shaped intensity profile, ensuring the entire beam reflects onto the quasi-Wolter mirror and reaches the focus of the system. The proposed system is ideal for soft-x-ray focusing. The design procedure and formulas are described in the present study. A prototype of the system is designed for BL25SU-A of SPring- 8. The ideal focusing spot size is estimated by numerical simulation to be 10 nm at 300 eV. The influence of alignment errors of the two mirrors is also simulated and summarized.
X-ray focusing optics are essential for acquiring high-quality X-ray microscopy images. Fresnel zone plates (FZPs) are conventionally used to focus soft X-rays via diffraction. The use of Kirkpatrick-Baez (KB) mirrors for nanofocusing in the soft X-ray region is limited because a KB mirror is a reflective X-ray focusing optic that has a pair of perpendicular mirrors in a grazing-incidence configuration, which lowers the numerical aperture due to the long focal length. KB mirrors with a short focal length have been proposed for hard X-ray focusing. This paper presents the design of an ultrashort KB mirror for soft X-ray focusing that has an extremely short focal length, which is achieved by reducing its mirror length. Moreover, a large grazing angle is employed to utilize total-reflection-based focusing. An ultrashort KB mirror is proposed for pilot studies at beamline BL25SU-A, SPring-8, Japan. A ray-tracing simulator is used to determine the misalignment tolerance in terms of roll and yaw for each mirror in the KB geometry. Based on the results, a mirror manipulator and other equipment are designed to precisely position the mirrors. Although this strategy, commonly used for FZPs, leads to a short working distance and a small beam acceptance, we believe that it can be applied to ultrashort KB mirrors for X-ray microscopy applications with achromaticity and strong demagnification.
Ellipsoidal mirrors are ideal focusing optics for soft x-rays because of advantages that include high numerical aperture, high efficiency, and no chromatic aberrations. Shape accuracy of nanometer order is required on the internal surface of a mirror with a diameter of around 10 mm. Because of the difficulty of processing the internal surface, ellipsoidal mirrors are fabricated by replication of the shapes of master mandrels. In previous studies, a fabrication process was developed for x-ray ellipsoidal mirrors involving mandrel fabrication and nickel electroforming. 40-mm-long ellipsoidal mirrors were fabricated and a focused beam with full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 240 nm was obtained. For better focusing performance and expansion of the applicable energy range, we designed and fabricated a 120-mm-long ellipsoidal mirror from the master mandrel with a shape accuracy of 3.8 nm (root mean square). A focusing experiment was also performed at the synchrotron radiation facility, SPring-8 (BL25SU). A focused beam with FWHM of 1 μm was obtained.
An ellipsoidal mirror is a soft X-ray reflective focusing device. We are developing precise ellipsoidal mirrors based on an electroforming process. To improve the fabrication process, three-dimensional shape measurements with a high accuracy are required. In this research we develop a method to measure ellipsoidal shapes by industrial X-ray computed tomography (CT). The X-ray CT process consists of measuring the mirror shape and determining the parameters of the ellipsoid. We also evaluate the reproducibility of X-ray CT measurements and clarify that the accuracy is at the 5-m level.
In synchrotron radiation facilities, soft X-ray nanofocusing with mirrors remains a hurdle due to difficulties in mirror fabrication. We have been researching the use of ellipsoidal mirrors for soft X-ray nanofocusing. Information on the wavefront errors of focused beams is helpful for improving the focusing system. This study presents ptychographic wavefront measurements for a nanofocusing system with an ellipsoidal mirror. We developed a ptychography program and performed several simulations at 300 eV to investigate the theoretical accuracy of the wavefront measurements. The simulation results indicate that wavefront measurements with high accuracy are possible.
The Wolter mirror is a promising imaging device for soft x-ray microscopy owing to its excellent characteristics. Its annular aperture enables high-NA design while maintaining high photon transfer efficiency. However, its deep and narrow cylinder-like shape makes its fabrication difficult. Despite its long history, the Wolter mirror has not been practically used for high-resolution microscopy. We have been developing a fabrication process for grazing incidence mirrors with rotationally symmetric shapes. The mirrors are replicated from precisely machined mandrels. We employ electroforming as a replication method with high replication accuracy and reproductivity. Here, we report the first fabrication of a Wolter mirror and discuss the replication quality in electroforming. The imaging quality of Wolter mirror is also evaluated in an observation experiment using a visible-light microscope.
For vortex beams, characterization and optimization of the optical system are important. However, wavefront measurements on focused vortex beams are difficult because they have complex phase and intensity distributions. As a measurement method, we proposed the use of ptychography, in which the intensity and phase of the beams are retrieved using several far-field diffraction patterns. We constructed an optical system with a He-Ne laser light source to clarify the usefulness of ptychography. Test vortex beams were produced by a spatial light modulator (SLM) and focused by a plano-convex lens. A pinhole was scanned on the focal plane for collection of the diffraction intensity profiles. The phase and intensity of the vortex beams on the focal plane were retrieved so that the calculated beams were consistent with the intensity data. The retrieved intensity and phase distributions were compared with distributions predicted using the inputs for the SLM. They agreed well, indicating that the ptychographic phase retrieval method can be used for precise characterization of vortex beams. This method is valuable for improving the performance of applications using vortex beams.
Focusing and imaging optics can be characterized by evaluating the wavefront error of the focused beam. We have bean developing a ptychographic phase retrieval method using a visible laser to measure the wavefront error. In this study, the measurement accuracy of the method is increased by improving both the phase retrieval algorithm and the experimental setup. The system is applied to the characterization of an ellipsoidal mirror used for the focusing of soft X-rays. The posture of the mirror can be measured with a resolution of 1.4 μrad. The wavefront error originating from the surface profile error can be detected with an accuracy of 0.01λ (root mean square).
Mirrors are key devices for creating various systems in optics. Focusing X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light requires mirror surfaces with an extremely high accuracy. The figure of an ellipsoidal mirror is obtained by rotating an elliptical profile, and using such a mirror, soft X-ray and EUV light can be focused to dimensions on the order of nanometers without chromatic aberration. Although the theoretical performance of ellipsoidal mirrors is extremely high, the fabrication of an ideal ellipsoidal mirror remains problematic. Based on this background, we have been working to develop a fabrication system for ellipsoidal mirrors. In this proceeding, we briefly introduce the fabrication process and the soft X-ray focusing performance of the ellipsoidal mirror fabricated using the proposed process.
It is possible to achieve soft X-ray nanofocusing with a high efficiency and no chromatic aberration by using an ultraprecise ellipsoidal mirror. Surface figure metrology is key in the improvement of surface figure accuracy. In this study, we propose a ptychographic phase retrieval method using a visible light laser to measure the surface figure error profile of an ellipsoidal mirror. We introduce a simple experimental system for ptychographic phase retrieval and demonstrate the basic performance of the proposed system. Obtainable wavefront information provides both the figure error and the alignment of the ellipsoidal mirror that yield the best focusing. This developed method is required for offline adjustments when an ellipsoidal mirror is installed in the beamline of synchrotron radiation or X-ray free-electron laser light sources.
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